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  • Pompey and Caesar. The first triumvirate. Civil War. The Rise of Caesar. The First Triumvirate and the Dictatorship of Caesar Consulate of Crassus and Pompey. Gabinius Law

    Pompey and Caesar.  The first triumvirate.  Civil War.  The Rise of Caesar.  The First Triumvirate and the Dictatorship of Caesar Consulate of Crassus and Pompey.  Gabinius Law

    The situation in Italy and the provinces in the 70s of the 1st century. BC e. remained tense. Most of the population of Asia Minor, ruined by taxes, all kinds of extortions and the activities of Roman moneylenders, again took the side of Mithridates, who was preparing a war with the Romans. Overburdened with recruitment and taxes, the Gauls and tribes of Spain were also dully worried. To the legalized violence was added the monstrous arbitrariness of the governors. According to the testimony of Cicero, who acted as the accuser of the Sicilian governor Verres, who had amassed enormous wealth by shamelessly plundering Sicily, all the provinces hated the very name of the Romans and were ready for any desperate attempt just to overthrow their tyranny.

    The number of pirates, recruited mainly from the inhabitants of Cilicia, Pamphylia, and Isauria, grew rapidly. Slaves and impoverished residents of Italy fled to the pirates.

    The activities of pirates completely disrupted maritime trade and the supply of grain to Rome. Prices were rising. The city plebs and horsemen, who had suffered greatly from the war with Mitrndates, considered it necessary to begin a decisive struggle with the pirates. The order established by Sulla caused increasing dissatisfaction. Most of the Sullan veterans went bankrupt and sold their plots to large owners. 15 years after the death of Sulla, the territory of Preisste distributed to veterans ended up in the hands of several owners, and the land of the Hirpine tribe was in the hands of one person. The Senate courts organized by Sulla acquired scandalous fame for the corruption of judges. All this created the basis for a new association of horsemen and plebs to fight the Senate, which supported the Sullan order. The people increasingly remembered Maria as the enemy of Sulla and the leader of the Populars. The young aristocrat Gaius Julius Caesar, nephew of his wife Maria and son-in-law of Cinna, gained wide fame for his speeches in which he mentioned the merits of the leaders of the popularists. Somewhat later, Caesar even risked restoring the statue of Mary and monuments in honor of his victories, removed by Sulla.

    Consulate of Crassus and Pompey. Gabinius Law

    The opposition to Sulla's regime was so strong that even such prominent Sullans as Crassus and Pompey had to declare themselves his opponents in order not to lose popularity. Elected consuls in 70, they passed laws that restored the pre-Sullan order: the tribunes of the people were returned to their former power; the distribution of cheap bread was resumed; the courts were transferred to a mixed commission of senators, equestrians and the wealthiest plebeians. Thus, Pompeii and Crassus became closely associated with the populares.

    At the proposal of the tribune Gabinius, Pimpey was given emergency powers for a period of three years to combat pirates. He received at his disposal 500 ships, 120 thousand soldiers, and was given unlimited power along the entire Mediterranean coast. With such a concentration of forces, the outcome of the struggle was predetermined. Three months after Pompey began the campaign, the sea was cleared of pirates. Some of the pirates were defeated, after which many pirate leaders confessed to Pompey and pledged to stop sea robbery. Pompeii settled a large number of pirates far from the sea, mainly in Cilicia devastated by the Romans and partly in Achaia. After 10-15 years, the pirates resumed their activities, but at first it seemed that Pompey had put an end to them forever and that granting him emergency powers was justified.

    Based on this, the plebs and horsemen began to demand that Pompey be given equally broad powers in the new war with Mithridates.

    The third warrior of Mithridates with Rome

    In the spring of 73, Mithridates began a new, third war with Rome. Having entered Bithynia, where an anti-Roman movement had begun, he defeated the Roman governor who ruled the province. He sent part of the Pontic troops to conquer Phrygia and other internal regions of Asia Minor. Mithridates himself began the siege of Cyzicus, a very important point, the possession of which ensured dominance over the straits connecting the Black Sea with the Aegean. But the king’s attempts to take possession of Cyzicus failed completely, and in the winter of 73/2 BC. e. he had to lift the siege and retreat with heavy losses. After this, Roman troops under the command of Lucius Lucullus invaded the Pontic kingdom and captured a number of fertile regions of the country. Mithridates, having lost almost his entire army, fled in the spring of 71 BC. e. to his son-in-law and ally - the king of Armenia Tigran. He expected to find sufficient forces in Armenia to organize resistance to the Romans.

    During 71 and 70 The Romans occupied the territory of the Pontic kingdom. At the same time, they entered into an alliance with the son of Mithridates Mahar, who ruled in the Bosporus, and thus prepared for military operations against Armenia, which unfolded in 69 and 68. BC e. Meanwhile, Mithridates, who helped Tigran in the fight against the Romans, chose an opportune moment and returned with an 8,000-strong army to the borders of his kingdom. In a relatively short time, he defeated the Roman troops left here by Lucullus.

    However, these successes of Mithridates were very ephemeral. Many years of wars exhausted the strength of Pontus, and the king's possessions were significantly reduced after the fall of the Bosporus. Stay of Roman troops in the Kingdom of Pontus in 71-68. BC e. led to the ruin and impoverishment of once rich lands. Since the capture of Amis, Sinope and Heraclea by the Romans, the Roman squadron dominated the Black Sea. This created insurmountable difficulties in the delivery of food and mercenaries from the tribes and peoples of the Black Sea region allied to Mithridates. The successful fight of the Romans with the Mediterranean pirates also deprived Mithridates of support that was very important to him.

    Pompey in the East

    In 66 BC. e. The tribune of the people, Manilius, proposed transferring command in the war against Mithridates to Pompey, giving him unlimited power over the eastern provinces. The Senate was afraid of such an unprecedented strengthening of one person, but with the combined forces of the plebs and horsemen, the Manilius law was carried out. The Senate protege Lucullus was unpopular: in the cities of Asia liberated from Mithridates, he forbade usurers to charge more than 12% and take away more than 1/4 of the debtor’s property. This immediately turned Roman businessmen against Lucullus. The soldiers were also dissatisfied with him, believing that they were not sufficiently rewarded.

    In the spring of 66 BC. e. the new Roman commander-in-chief, Gnaeus Pompeii, entered the Pontic kingdom with a 60,000-strong army. Mithridates was able to field only about 33 thousand soldiers from the local population, and from the very beginning there was a shortage of food in the king’s troops. In the clash with Pompey, which took place in Lesser Armenia, near the settlement of Dastira, the Pontic army was completely defeated, and Mithridates himself barely escaped. This time he was forced to flee north to Colchis, since his ally Tigran laid down his arms. After spending the winter in Dioscurias, Mithridates began new preparations for war with Rome. He entered into an alliance with the Meotian tribes and, having bypassed from the north, again captured the Bosporan kingdom, expelling Mahar from there.

    In the Northern Black Sea region, Mithridates began to gather troops, procure food and restore the fleet. To do this, he imposed heavy taxes on the entire population, which caused grumbling among the Bosporans. Particular discontent among the propertied layers was caused by the fact that Mithridates formed his army not only from free people, but also from slaves, who at the same time received freedom. Dissatisfaction with Mithridates led to the uprising of such large cities as Phanagoria, Chersonesus, and others. The uprising spread to Panticapaeum, where Mithridates' son Pharnaces plotted against him, hoping that by submitting to the Romans, he would retain power over the Bosporus. The army, which did not believe in the grandiose plans of Mithridates, who was going to invade Italy from the north through the Danube regions, went over to the side of Pharnaces a few days before setting out on the campaign. In front of the eyes of the old King, who had fortified himself on the acropolis of Panticapaeum (modern Mount Mithridates in Kerch), Pharnaces accepted the signs of royal power. Abandoned by everyone, Mithridates committed suicide (63 BC).

    After the defeat inflicted on Mithridates and Tigranes, Pompey headed to Syria, and in 63 he took Jerusalem. Two years after Pompey's appointment, the war was over. A new province was formed on the territory of Asia Minor - Pontus and Bithynia and the richest Syria was annexed as a province.

    Pompey behaved in the East as an unlimited ruler. He redistributed territories at his discretion, sorted out the feuds of local kings, approved contenders for the throne in Paphlagonia, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Judea, received assurances of loyalty and rich gifts from them, and lent them money at high interest rates. The kings appointed by Pompey became the conductors of Roman policy in those areas in which there were few Greek cities and there were strong vestiges of the primitive communal system. The more Hellenized areas were converted into provinces. Following the practice of the Hellenistic kings, Pompey founded and restored about 40 cities in these provinces, which were to become strongholds of Roman rule.

    In Asia, Pompeii, meeting the horsemen halfway, abolished the restrictions on the activities of tax farmers introduced by Sulla, but in the new provinces he made city magistrates responsible for collecting taxes, giving them the right to hand over taxes themselves, which was beneficial primarily to the local rich, Military spoils of the Romans was huge. During the war, so many slaves were captured in Asia that the price for them dropped to 4 denarii each, while usually the average price of a slave was 500 denarii. The income of the Roman treasury after Pompey's successes increased from 15 million to 85 million denarii. It is not surprising that he became the most powerful man in the state. Many thought that upon returning to Italy, Pompey, with the help of the army, would become a dictator.

    This prospect alarmed the riders. They feared, not without reason, that, once in power, Pompey would come to an agreement with the optimates. Therefore, among Pompey’s political opponents, mainly from among the horsemen, the project of going to Egypt became popular. If this campaign were organized, Pompey’s opponents could create their own army and oppose it to Pompey’s army, the main support of his growing political influence. It was assumed that the campaign in Egypt would be led by Crassus, who represented the interests of the horsemen. In this regard, Crassus became close to Caesar, the recognized leader of the popularists, who also saw Pompey as his main political rival. Caesar's fame especially increased after his election in 65 to the post of aedile, when he spent enormous amounts of money and went into debt, organizing spectacles and entertainments of unprecedented luxury for the population of Rome. In 63, Caesar was elected great pontiff by an overwhelming majority.

    The Senate, however, was well aware that under the current conditions a campaign in Egypt was fraught with the danger of civil war, and they prevented the organization of this campaign. As the moment of Pompey's return from the East approached, the situation in Rome became more and more tense.

    Senators, unsure of the position that Pompeii would take, hoped that Lucullus, offended by the resignation, would become an active leader of the optimates, but he abandoned politics and lived as a private person, striking his contemporaries with the unprecedented luxury of his villas, art galleries, parks and especially his feasts ( "Lucullus' Feasts"). On the other hand, Cicero, a fellow countryman of Maria, a man of humble birth, or, as they said then, a “new man,” who had previously acted on the side of the popularists and became famous as an orator, went over to the optimates.

    Many of Cicero's qualities allowed him to move into the forefront of political figures of that time. He entirely put his brilliant oratorical talent, developed thanks to his excellent acquaintance with philosophy, literature, the theory of oratory and law, at the service of his political goals, which then coincided with the goals of the aristocracy. Being essentially a completely unprincipled person, he did not hesitate to change his beliefs, arguments, and friendships depending on the requirements of the moment and the situation. Speaking before the people, he was ready to extol the great merits and valor of the Gracchi and Marius; speaking in the Senate, he called them the worst demagogues, violators of social peace, and in his intimate letters he ridiculed both the Senate and the people. In one of his letters, he says that while there is a struggle in the state, one must be on the side of those whose cause one considers just, but if a civil war begins, one should side with those who are stronger.

    Serpilius Gull's bill. Conspiracy of Catiline

    In the elections of 64, Cicero put forward his candidacy for consul. Cicero's main rival was Catiline, a bankrupt aristocrat and once active Sullanite. Even then, Cicero began to develop a program that later formed the basis for a number of his political writings. The main idea of ​​this program boiled down to the slogan “accord of the estates,” by which he essentially meant the consolidation of the forces of the ruling class.

    Catiline was voted out, and Cicero was elected consul. However, the real situation made it impossible to implement the slogan “harmony of estates.” Added to the unresolved agrarian issue was the increasingly aggravated debt issue, as debt assumed catastrophic proportions among different segments of the population.

    In 64, the people's tribune Servilius Rull came up with a draft of a new agrarian law. He proposed selling state lands in the provinces, adding to the proceeds the amounts received in the form of taxes from the provinces and the military spoils of all commanders, and using these funds to purchase land for the poorest citizens, as well as dividing the remaining undivided state lands of Campania among them. Finally, all lands that came into someone's possession since 84, i.e., since the time of Sulla's proscriptions, were, according to Rull's project, to become the private property of the owners. The implementation of the reform was supposed to be entrusted to a commission of 10 persons vested with broad powers. Only persons who were in Rome at that time could be elected as members of this commission. Pompey, who still remained in the East, could not get into it. It is possible that Crassus and Caesar stood behind Rullus.

    Rull's bill was beneficial to the rural plebs and the Sullan veterans who still retained their lands, and large property owners who profited from proscriptions. However, this law caused significant damage to tax-farming companies and the urban plebs, whose handouts were mainly based on income from leased state lands. Cicero played on this, making three speeches against Rull’s bill and ensuring its failure.

    The plebs met the call to fight against the Senate oligarchy and for the elimination of debts in a completely different way. These slogans were put forward by Catiline, who again stood as a candidate in the consular elections of 63 and at the same time secretly prepared a coup d'etat. The composition of Catiline's supporters was very diverse. Among them were senators from seedy and impoverished families, and aristocratic youth who had squandered their fortune and were burdened with debt, and the urban lumpen proletariat, and impoverished Sullan veterans. Supporters of Catalina campaigned throughout Italy. They achieved the greatest success in Etruria, devastated by Sulla, and in Southern Italy, which was still worried after the Spartacist uprising. They also tried to enter into relations with the Gallic tribe of the Allobroges, who were ready to rebel, whose ambassadors arrived in Rome at that time to ask for the settlement of arrears. What united this diverse mass of people was the slogan of eliminating debt obligations.

    As a result of the active opposition of Cicero, Catiline again failed in the elections to the consuls elected in 62. In response to this, the conspirators decided to rebel and seize power. Cicero, aware of the conspiracy by his agents, but not having sufficient evidence, made speeches against Catalina, into which he invested all his oratory skills. These speeches influenced the mood of the wealthier layers of the plebs - merchants, owners of workshops and houses, who feared for their property. The Senate gave Cicero emergency powers. Then Cicero sent soldiers throughout Italy and appointed large rewards to slaves and freemen for denunciations of the conspirators. Most of the collegiums - organizations of the plebs - were closed. Catiline was forced to leave Rome and went to Etruria, where one of the participants in the conspiracy, Manlius, was recruiting an army.

    The Catilinarians remaining in Rome, led by Lentulus and Cethegus, continued preparations for the uprising. However, all their plans were thwarted. An intercepted letter from Lentulus to the Allobroges calling for an uprising gave Cicero grounds to demand immediate reprisals against the conspirators. By decision of the Senate (which was opposed only by Caesar, who himself was possibly associated with Catiline), Lentulus, Cethegus and other prominent conspirators were killed without trial. A consular army was sent against the rebel detachments recruited by Manlius and Catiline. In a fierce battle near the city of Pistoria (in Etruria), Catiline's supporters were defeated, and he himself died. Then the Allobroges movement was suppressed. Cicero received the title "Father of the Fatherland".

    The evidence of contemporaries, openly hostile towards Catiline, does not make it possible to judge with complete certainty the movement associated with his name. One thing is clear: the diverse mass of Catiline’s supporters were united only by hatred of the Senate oligarchy. The movement did not have a strong social basis. Catiline avoided the agrarian question and, unlike, for example, Cinna, refused to accept runaway slaves into his camp. The decayed urban plebs no longer represented a democratic force. And although Cicero managed to deal with the Catilinarians in the name of saving the republic, the entire course of further events indicated that the social base of the republic of nobles had narrowed extremely and that real power was passing from the hands of the Senate into the hands of successful commanders and political ambitious people from among the ruling class, who relied on a professional army . The Senate aristocratic republic was replaced by an empire.

    First triumvirate

    Returning from the East in December 62, Pompey, after a brilliant triumph, generously rewarded the soldiers and disbanded his army. But in order to maintain popularity in the army, Pompey had to endow the soldiers with land, and in order to maintain prestige in the East, he had to achieve Senate approval of the events he carried out there. The Senate, trying to weaken the influence of Pompey, who had become dangerous in the eyes of the optimates, denied him both. At this time, Caesar returned to Rome from Spain. He intended to obtain the consulate for 59, counting on his popularity among the plebs. In the current situation, it became possible for the army, the horsemen and the plebs to act together, since all of them, after recent events, had reasons to be dissatisfied with the policies of the optimates. The unification of these three forces took the form of an agreement between Pompey, Crassus and Caesar. Each of them individually could not yet seize sole power at that moment. Their union subsequently received the name of the first triumvirate. In 59, Caesar was elected consul. Using the support of the people's assembly, he passed a law in favor of the horsemen to reduce farm-out payments by 1jt, and in favor of Pompey and his army - the approval of Pompey's activities in the East and a law on the division of land in Campania between 20 thousand veterans and the poorest large-family citizens. The following year, with the support of Caesar, Clodius, who had established himself as an ardent enemy of the optimates, was elected to the tribunes of the people, very popular among the plebs, despite his aristocratic origins. The triumvirs also provided other magistracies for their adherents. At the end of his consulate, Caesar received control of Cisalpine and Narbonese Gaul for five years, which gave him the right to recruit troops.

    Celtic tribes in the 1st century. BC e. Beginning of Caesar's military operations in Gaul

    In March 58, Caesar, having completed the recruitment of troops, arrived in the province assigned to him. In Gaul he found himself in a rather difficult situation. Here at this time there was an almost continuous struggle between various tribal alliances. A large association was created by one of the Gallic tribes - the Arverni. The Aedui and Sequani, having united a number of other Gallic tribes under their hegemony, fought for dominance over all of Gaul. However, the Gauls in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. It was never possible to create a strong union of all tribes. This was hampered by the low level of economic development of most tribes, constant military clashes between them, and also the intervention of Rome, which took advantage of intertribal and social struggle within the tribes.

    What began in the late 70s of the 1st century was of great importance. BC e. the movement of the Celtic tribe of the Helvetii, who left the area between the Main and the upper Rhine and settled in the western part of modern Switzerland: At the same time, the Upper Rhine region was occupied by the Germanic tribe of the Sueves.

    The consequence of the movements of the Suevi and Helvetii was a significant complication of intertribal relations in Gaul. The Sequani and Arverni, who were at war with the Aedui, turned to the Suevian leader Ariovistus for help. With their combined forces they defeated the Aedui (around 60 BC). For this help, the Sequani ceded part of their territory to the Suevians. Thus, the Suevi became neighbors of the Helvetii and pushed the latter out. The Helvetii decided to move to the mouth of the Garonne. To do this, they had to pass through the territory of the Roman province - Narbonese Gaul. The Romans were very concerned about the movement of 300 thousand Helvetii.

    Upon arrival in the province, Caesar immediately intervened in these matters. He forbade the Helvetians to pass through Roman possessions. Then the Helvetii had to choose a different path. But when they moved through the regions of the Sequani and Aedui, the latter turned to Caesar for help. He responded to this call and in 58 BC. e. inflicted a heavy defeat on the Helvetians, forcing them to return to their old place of settlement.

    While Caesar and his troops were in Gaul, the situation in Rome became increasingly tense. With the support of the plebs, Clodius managed to pass a number of laws that contributed to the growth of Caesar's popularity: on the free distribution of grain to 320 thousand citizens, on the restoration of the colleges dissolved by Cicero, on the expulsion of Cicero for the illegal execution of the Catilinarians, etc. Clodius's influence did not decrease with the end of his tribunate. From the lower strata of the urban population and slaves specially purchased for this purpose, he organized armed detachments that instilled fear in the optimates. The optimates resorted to the same methods. Their supporters Miloi, Sestius and others also bought gladiators and armed artisans to fight the troops of Clodius.

    The struggle of supporters of Caesar and Pompey in Rome

    Like Caesar, whose agent he was, Clodius tried to use the discontent that was rapidly growing among the impoverished plebs to disorganize and weaken the optimates. Essentially, the plebs no longer had any positive program. By participating in armed clashes between the detachments of Clodius and Milo, free poor people and slaves only gave vent to their spontaneous hatred of the power of the aristocracy and the rich. In Rome, an ever-increasing anarchy reigned; there were years when, due to street clashes and completely open vote-buying, it was impossible to hold elections of officials.

    In such a situation, a meeting of the triumvirs took place in the city of Luke (56 BC). It was furnished extremely luxuriously. Many senators and magistrates arrived in Luka. In fact, the triumvirate turned into the unofficial Roman government. The triumvirs entered into a new agreement, according to which Crassus and Pompey became consuls for the next year, after which Pompey received control of Spain and Africa (which he ruled through legates, remaining in Rome), and Crassus received command in the East against the Parthians. Caesar's powers in Gaul were extended for another 5 years.

    Caesar's successes in this country, which he knew how to embellish even more in his reports, amazed his contemporaries. They were explained not only by Caesar’s extraordinary military and diplomatic talents, but mainly by the position of the Gallic aristocracy, which, out of fear of popular movements, betrayed its homeland to the Romans. After the victory over the Helvetii, Caesar, allegedly acting at the request of the Gallic tribes, but in fact relying only on the tribal nobility, demanded that Ariovistus leave the country. Having been refused, he declared war on the Germans and pushed them beyond the Rhine. In subsequent years, despite persistent resistance, the northwestern Celtic and Germanic tribes of the Belgae, Nervii, Usipetes, Tencteri and many others were conquered one after another. Gaul was declared a Roman province and subject to an annual tax of 40 million denarii. In addition, during the campaign itself, Caesar captured enormous booty. According to some, however exaggerated, reports, about a million slaves were taken.

    Caesar spent the funds looted in Gaul on massive bribery of the people he needed. Aristocratic youth flocked to Caesar's camp in search of enrichment. He almost doubled the salaries of his soldiers. Caesar's fame grew rapidly. His expeditions to Britain and the Zarsyn region, previously unknown to the Romans, made a particularly strong impression, although these campaigns did not produce significant results. In the first five years of the war, Gaul was actually far from being conquered. Already during Caesar's campaign in Britain, an uprising broke out in Gaul, costing the Romans great losses, but was relatively easily suppressed due to the disorganization of the Gauls. But even after this, the resistance forces of the Gallic people were still not broken.

    The collapse of the triumvirate. Great Gali Revolt

    At the end of the 50s, the triumvirate collapsed. In 53, Crassus died in the battle with the Parthians at Carrhae. The following year, 52, Clodius was killed in a skirmish with Milo’s detachment. This event caused an uprising of the plebs, who, together with the slaves, attacked the optimates, destroyed their houses, and destroyed their property. The aristocracy, among which Cicero, who had returned from exile, again played a prominent role, was forced to enter into an alliance with Pompey, dissatisfied with the strengthening of Caesar. For the first time in the history of the republic, Pompey was elected the only “consul without a colleague” (that is, he actually received dictatorial powers), sent troops to Rome and began to take measures against Caesar’s supporters.

    At this tense moment, the Gallic patriots raised an uprising, led by the leader of the people's party of the Arverp tribe, Vercingetorix. Dissatisfaction with Roman policies and the desire to expel foreigners and invaders from the country united almost all layers of Gallic society. Caesar suffered a serious defeat at the city of Gergovia, after which all of Gaul sided with Vercingetorix. It seemed that the reign of the Romans had come to an end, but internal strife weakened the rebels. The struggle of the Gauls against the Romans was long and stubborn. In the end, Caesar managed to besiege Vercingetorix in the city of Alesia, defeat the army of the Gauls that was coming to his aid, and force him to surrender. Vercingetorix was sent to Rome as a prisoner in chains and then executed. The reprisal against the rebels was extremely brutal. Gaul was so drained of blood that it became incapable of further organized resistance. At the same time, Caesar increasingly attracted the Gallic nobility to himself, rewarding them with Roman citizenship for service in his troops, endowing them with extensive land holdings and promoting his supporters to the positions of city magistrates.

    The victory over Gaul gave Caesar a strong army, money and manpower, as he recruited Gauls not only into auxiliary units, but also into legions. Like Pompey's annexation of new eastern regions, the conquest of Gaul greatly expanded the Roman state. In new areas that came under the sphere of influence of developed slave-owning relations, the slave-owning mode of production began to quickly establish itself. This, together with the arrival of many hundreds of thousands of slaves from the East, from Gaul and Britain, gave a new impetus to the development of the slave system as a whole.

    Having put an end to the Gallic uprising, Caesar focused all his attention on strengthening his political positions in Rome. He intended to run for consul in 49 and oppose Pompey and the optimates.

    The most immediate consequence of the slave revolt was the fall of the Sullan constitution. Consuls 70 BC became Marcus Crassus and Gnaeus Pompey. Both considered themselves the winners of Spartak and both harbored mutual hostility towards each other, competing with each other. On the initiative of Pompey, whom Sulla called great for his military merits, the democratic elements of the Roman political system, abolished by Sulla, were restored, and the political order he created was actually eliminated. In the 60s BC. Pompey's role in political life increased even more, as did his authority, thanks to the brilliantly carried out operation to clear the Mediterranean Sea of ​​pirates and thanks to the no less brilliant conclusion of another war between Rome and Mithridates. As a result of the eastern campaigns, the Roman army under the command of Pompey defeated the troops of a total of 22 kings and princes and won untold wealth for Rome.

    At the end of 62 BC. Pompey the Great arrived with his army in Italy. He was at the zenith of glory and power and possessed enormous wealth and a loyal army. It cost him nothing to move the army to Rome and declare himself the new dictator, but he, as a law-abiding citizen, disbanded his legions and began to humbly await a well-deserved triumph. However, the Senate aristocracy, fearing Pompey and his army, made every effort to humiliate the victorious commander. Although Pompey was given a luxurious triumph, the Senate refused to approve his decisions in the east, denied him a consulate, and did not allocate land for his veterans.

    At this time, Gaius Julius Caesar appeared on the political arena - a personality so significant in ancient history that Plutarch honored him with a comparison with Alexander the Great in his Comparative Lives. Caesar managed to reconcile the long-warring Pompey and Crassus and create an anti-Senate union of the three powerful people of Rome, or rather the forces that stood behind them: behind Caesar - the city plebs, behind Crassus - the equestrian class, behind Pompey - his veterans. This unofficial union formed in 60 BC. and was called the triumvirate, although some contemporaries called it a “three-headed monster.”

    With the support of Pompey's veterans and Crassus' horsemen, Caesar was elected consul for 59 BC. and during this year he consistently implemented the triumvir program, satisfying the demands of the forces supporting them. At the end of Caesar's consulate, a law was passed according to which each of the three received control of a province for 5 years with the right to recruit legions. Caesar found himself in the most advantageous position, who got Gaul and Illyricum. During 58-56 BC. Caesar accomplished an unprecedented conquest of a vast territory as far as Britain in the north and the Rhine in the east. Crassus, who dreamed of military glory and was jealous of Caesar's successes, set out to make conquests in the east, but there he was opposed by the powerful Parthia. Under the command of Crassus, the Romans invaded Northern Mesopotamia, but soon suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Carrhae (53 BC), after which Crassus himself died. Only Pompey, who had already gained sufficient fame on the battlefield, abandoned such measures and limited himself to the relatively peaceful administration of Spain, which he knew well. However, it seems that he also thirsted for glory, but in the political field and gladly accepted the Senate’s offer to become in 52 BC. a consul without a colleague, that is, a de facto dictator. Caesar at this time fought with the rebellious Gallic tribes, and when the uprising was suppressed, he found himself face to face with his strong rival.

    Pompey was the first to take measures to remove Caesar from the political arena: a bill was passed through the Senate, according to which Caesar was supposed to disband the legions, relinquish power and report to the Senate about his actions in Gaul. For Caesar, this meant at least political death, and even, in the worst case, physical death. Under these conditions, Caesar made a difficult decision, which he expressed with the famous phrase “The die is cast” when crossing the Rubicon River with only two legions. The crossing of this border river by the governor of the province with the army signaled the beginning of the civil war. This war lasted from 49 to 45 BC, and was marked by a number of magnificent victories won thanks to the military genius of Caesar and his luck. Although luck was largely accompanied by historical circumstances.

    Caesar's dictatorship

    Already during the civil war, Caesar began to implement measures relating to various aspects of the life of the Roman state. Back in 46 BC. Caesar was declared dictator for 10 years, and from 44 BC. was proclaimed "eternal dictator". Gradually, the rights of various republican magistrates were concentrated in his hands, which made his power essentially unlimited. Caesar had censor rights, tribunician power, consular powers, held the post of great pontiff and had a number of honorary titles: emperor, father of the fatherland and liberator (liberator). In literature, Caesar is sometimes called the first Roman emperor. It should be noted that Caesar did not create a new political system, but only came close to it, therefore it is legitimate to consider him an emperor in the republican sense (he, as noted, actually bore this title, which in republican times was given by the Senate or soldiers to the victorious commander and symbolized him connection with the army).

    Caesar increased the number of members of the Senate to 900 people. (even under Sulla there were 600 senators), replenishing it with his supporters, but without removing his opponents from it. The rights of the people's assembly were limited, and the political significance of the magistrates was weakened by the increase in their number and the regulation of the timing of their departure. Caesar's law on municipalities was of particular importance. This law regulated city administration and structure. Cities were given autonomy in resolving local issues, rules for the election of city magistrates and qualification restrictions were established. Civil rights and municipal urban forms spread throughout the provinces.

    In general, Caesar's reign, from a political point of view, was nothing more than the sole rule of a military dictator, relying on legions loyal to him. The establishment of a military dictatorship was an inevitable consequence of the development of the crisis of the Roman Republic, as a crisis of civitas. The transformation of Rome into the largest power in the Mediterranean required greater stability of the state apparatus, the presence of a standing army and a unified centralized administration. Through military dictatorship, Rome objectively moved towards the establishment of a monarchical form of government. However, Caesar walked towards her too quickly.

    Among the representatives of the Roman nobility there were still many opponents of Caesar, to whom he treated, perhaps, too mercifully, without removing people even who clearly hated him. Many were dissatisfied with the violation of the republican constitution, their removal from public office, and were looking for an opportunity to take revenge on Caesar for insults and insults. Representatives of republican sentiments, not only among the nobility, but also among broad layers of the Romans, were especially alarmed by the obvious monarchical aspirations of Caesar and his entourage. All this ultimately led to a conspiracy in which a total of 60 senators took part. On the Ides of March (March 15), 44 BC. Despite many bad omens, colorfully described by Plutarch and Suetonius, Caesar appeared at a meeting of the Senate, at which the conspirators attacked him and began to stab him with daggers. Drenched in blood, the dictator fell to the foot of the statue of his main enemy, Pompey. As it turned out later, the conspirators acted indecisively and were afraid of Caesar: out of 23 wounds inflicted on him, only one turned out to be fatal...

    And yet, the centuries-old republican traditions turned out to be still tenacious. The Republic continued to experience a crisis, and the assassination of the dictator could only prolong its existence for a short time.

    Section IV HISTORY OF ANCIENT ROME

    Topic 1. ANCIENT ROME WITH THE ROYAL AND REPUBLICAN DAYS

    § 48. HOW THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE APPEARED AND WHY CAESAR’S DICTATORSHIP WAS ESTABLISHED

    1. ROMAN GLADIATORS

    Why did gladiators rise up to fight against the Romans?

    The most common spectacles in Rome were gladiator fights. Amphitheaters were built for them, similar to modern stadiums. In the center of the container structure, a platform filled with sand was placed - an arena (from the Latin - “sand”).

    Gladiators (from Latin - “sword”) are specially trained fighters in Ancient Rome who performed in spectacles with other gladiators or animals,

    The strongest slaves, prisoners of war or criminals sentenced to death, were given to gladiators. They were trained in special schools to participate in battles. In addition to foot gladiators, horsemen and charioteers took part in the battles, who fought in chariots. A special type of entertainment was the baiting of animals, which were specially brought from Africa and released into the amphitheater arena.

    Describe what you see in the illustrations.

    Scenes of gladiator fights (ancient Roman mosaic)

    At 74 p.m. to n. That is, gladiators caused the most rebellion in Ancient Rome. It was led by Spartacus, who, along with 70 comrades, fled from the gladiator school and took refuge on Mount Vesuvius.

    When the Romans blocked the only way down the mountain, slaves descended at night along ladders woven from vines and unexpectedly attacked the Romans. Slaves began to flock to Spartacus en masse - his army eventually reached 75 thousand soldiers. The rebels repeatedly defeated the Roman army. Eventually, Spartacus led the rebels to northern Italy to cross the Alps and lead the slaves to the province of Gaul, where they would be free. Being one step away from the desired freedom, Spartak turned back. Scientists are still trying to explain why. In 71 AD. That is, the rebels were defeated.

    2. FIRST TRIUMVIRATE*

    For what purpose was the First Triumvirate created?

    After the uprising of Spartacus, new civil strife began in Rome. Fights during public meetings, skirmishes on the streets and roads became a common feature of Roman life.

    At the same time, the creation of a mercenary army, successful wars of conquest, and the suppression of slave uprisings strengthened the power of the commanders. From now on, Roman soldiers obeyed only their commander. The more influential statesmen and commanders at that time were Gnaeus Pompey, Julius Caesar and Marcus Crassus.

    In 60 AD they united to seize and distribute power and fight the Senate. This alliance was called the First Triumvirate and made them the most powerful people in the country.

    Cover of a famous historical novel

    * Triumvirate - an alliance of three influential commanders with the goal of capturing the valley.

    Gaius Julius Caesar

    Gnaeus Pompey the Great

    Mark Krass

    Pompey began to command the army that was stationed in Spain. Crassus was assigned to fight in the east with Parthia. Caesar was made governor of Gaul, which he conquered at the cost of great effort.

    After the death of Crassus in the war with Parthia, the Senate gave Pompey emergency powers, at the same time canceled Caesar's powers in Gaul and ordered him to disband the army. Caesar refused to carry out this decision. At the head of one of his legions, he approached the Rubicon River. Caesar hesitated for a long time. After all, crossing the Rubicon means committing a rebellion against the Republic. Finally, he made up his mind and on January 10, 49 AD. with only one legion he crossed the river, saying the famous words: “The lot is cast.” Thus began the second civil war.

    How did the expression “cross the Rubicon” come about? What meaning does it have today?

    Francesco Granacci. Julius Caesar and the Crossing of the Rubicon

    * Parthia is the name of Persia after the seizure of power by kings from the Parthian tribe.

    Caesar's army quickly marched towards Rome. The Senate had many more troops, but they were scattered throughout the provinces. Pompey's main forces were concentrated in Spain." Panic began in Rome. Caesar entered Rome without a fight and took possession of Italy.

    Soon, in a decisive battle, Caesar won a brilliant victory. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he died.

    3. CAESAR'S DICTATORSHIP

    What changes occurred in Roman society during Caesar's dictatorship?

    Caesar received enormous power: as a tribune of the people, consul, censor and high priest. He was appointed dictator for life, and the title emperor became his honorary title. The Senate and popular assemblies, which no longer had much influence on the life of the country, formally elected Caesar annually as consul. From now on, the dictator relied primarily on the troops loyal to him.

    Emperor (from Latin - “ruler”) is an honorary title in Republican Rome that was given to a commander who won great victories. In another meaning, it is the title of a monarch - the ruler of an empire.

    By order of Caesar, a gold coin was first issued, which over time became the only monetary unit in Rome. Caesar reformed the calendar. In many languages ​​of the world, one of the summer months bears his name - July.

    However, a conspiracy soon arose against Caesar.

    The dictator's enemies spread rumors that he was seeking to proclaim himself king.

    March 15, 44 AD Caesar arrived at the Senate meeting. When he entered, the conspirators surrounded him in a close crowd and rushed at the emperor with daggers, which they hid under senatorial togas, and stabbed him to death. They say that at first Caesar tried to defend himself, but when he saw Brutus among the conspirators, whom he treated like a son, he said: “And you, Brute?!” - covered his face with the edge of his clothes and fell dead in front of the statue of Pompey.

    Gold coin of Julius Caesar

    Thus, in the 55th year, the life of this outstanding man ended. However, the conspirators were unable to restore the Republic. The struggle for power began again in Rome.

    Check what you have learned in the lesson

    1. Why do you think many slaves joined Spartacus?

    2. Who entered the treasure of the First Triumvirate?

    3. Tell us about the dictatorship of Caesar. How was it different from Sulla's dictatorship?

    4. What changes in the Roman army contributed to Caesar’s seizure of power in Rome?

    Homework

    1. What episode is depicted in the picture? How did the artist depict Caesar? Write your own attitude towards the participants of the event.

    Karl Theodor von Pilote. Death of Caesar

    2. Tell us about your attitude towards Caesar’s dictatorship.

    Getting ready for a practical lesson

    Remember how the historical portrait develops. What interests you most about studying the biography of a historical figure?

    Political union in ancient Rome. During the fall of the Roman Republic, power twice actually passed from the Senate and magistrates to a trio of people (where each time the third participant was weaker than the two main rivals). Both times the triumvirates ended in civil wars.

    In 60 BC e. Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompey the Great and Marcus Licinius Crassus pooled resources to seize power, forming the First Triumvirate. It lasted until the death of Crassus in 53 BC. e.

    Formation of the triumvirate

    The organizer of the triumvirate was Caesar, who had just returned from Further Spain as propraetor. At the walls of Rome he had to choose between the triumph for which he had hoped and the consulate. A man who entered Rome could no longer claim triumph, and remaining outside the walls of Rome, Caesar could not stand as a candidate for consul. Although Caesar asked the Senate to make an exception for him and allow his friends to nominate him, Cato sharply opposed this. But many senators were still ready to support Caesar, and therefore Cato obstructed him by making a speech that took up the entire session. After this, Caesar abandoned attempts to obtain both a triumph and a consulate at once, and entered Rome to nominate his candidacy for consul. Soon after, Caesar, dissatisfied with the Senate, entered into an alliance with Pompey, who was also dissatisfied with the policies of the senators, who canceled many of his decisions made during the war in Asia and thereby belittled his achievements. In addition, Caesar needed the support of a famous person in Rome in the election of consul. However, Caesar understood that by entering into an alliance with Pompey, he would automatically make the no less powerful Crassus his enemy, and he soon managed to reconcile Crassus and Pompey, convincing them that the differences between them only strengthened the senators, that is, giving the alliance a pronounced anti-senate orientation. Despite the known circumstances of the conclusion of the triumvirate, the question of the exact time of its creation is unclear due to the initially secret nature of the agreement - whether it was the summer of 60, the autumn, or even 59.

    Activities of the triumvirs

    Thanks to the support of the most famous commander of that time, Pompey, and the richest of the Romans, Crassus, Caesar was elected consul for the year 59. At the same time, his colleague was the Senate protege Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, with whom Caesar entered into a conflict that continued until the end of their joint consulate. Caesar managed to pass a law on the division of land among the poor and on the withdrawal of the colonies, and the second consul Bibulus was not even allowed into the forum - supporters of Caesar and Pompey first turned a basket of manure on his head, and broke the fasces of his lictors, after which they threw Bibulus and his supporters stones. Also in addition to this law, a resolution was passed according to which all senators were required to take an oath to comply with the law. Then a law was passed on the division of lands in Campania. Cato, who strongly protested against the adoption of this law, Caesar ordered to be sent to prison, but soon he himself released him. Caesar also approved the orders made by Pompey in Asia, which the Senate had previously refused to approve. Despite the traditional principle of collegiality, Caesar actually usurped power and stopped convening the Senate, so that some even began to call 59 “the year of Julius and Caesar” instead of the traditional norm. However, Caesar's political weight was still insignificant at that time, and it was believed that he was carrying out his radical laws in the interests of Pompey. For example, Cicero is known to have spoken in May 59 of Pompey's intention to establish tyranny as a widely held opinion.

    Caesar ensured that he, with the rank of proconsul, was entrusted with the administration of Cisalpine Gaul, Narbonese Gaul and Illyricum for 5 years. In 56, at a joint meeting of the triumvirs in Lucca, it was decided to extend Caesar's proconsulate for another 5 years.

    In 53, Marcus Licinius Crassus, having gone to war with Parthia, died, and the triumvirate ceased to exist.

    Bibliography:

    1. Plutarch. Caesar, 13

    2. Plutarch. Cato Jr., 14

    3. Appian. Roman history. Civil Wars, II, 9

    4. Plutarch. Pompeii, 46

    5. Plutarch. Krass, 14

    6. Plutarch. Pompeii, 47

    7. Utchenko, S. L. - Julius Caesar. - Moscow, “Thought 1976”. - P. 92

    8. Plutarch. Cato Jr., 32

    9. Appian. Civil Wars, II, 10

    10. Plutarch. Caesar, 14

    11. Plutarch. Cato Jr., 33

    12. Suetonius. Caesar, 20

    13. Cicero. Ad Att., II, 17

    In 60 BC. An important event took place in the political life of Rome - an alliance of the three most influential political figures was formed: Pompey, Caesar and Crassus. It was an informal agreement between representatives of the three most influential socio-political forces - the army, the populares and the horsemen. Essentially, it meant the unification of all anti-Senate groups. Despite the fact that from a formal point of view this triumvirate was not institutionalized in legislation, in political practice it became in fact a second government, existing together with the official government controlled by the Senate.

    The motives for creating such a union are covered in sources and historiography in sufficient detail. It is obvious that in 60 BC. A situation arose in which three influential leaders - Pompey, Caesar and Crassus, against the backdrop of dissatisfaction with the actions of the Senate, saw each other as a source of mutually beneficial support. According to information from Dio Cassius, Pompey was dissatisfied that after the victorious campaign the Senate refused to reward his veterans with land plots and recommend him for the consulate the next year. In the same year, Julius Caesar returned from the province of Further Spain, having served there as governor after leaving the praetorship in Rome. Caesar also began to seek consulate, but met opposition from the senators (Dio., XXXVII, 54.2). Crassus, who represented the interests of the equestrian class, was dissatisfied with the Senate law on the investigation of judges suspected of bribery. In addition, he hoped to become a leading political figure due to the authority of Pompey and Caesar. “Crassus imagined,” says the same Cassius, “that his origin and wealth should place him above everyone else” (Ibid., 56.4). The creation of the triumvirate is believed to have been initiated by Julius Caesar. He managed to reconcile Pompey and Crassus, who were at war with each other, and unite them with friendship, “putting the power of both at the service of himself” (Plut., Caes., 13). Caesar was convinced that he could never become powerful without them, and, according to Dio Cassius, “he was not afraid of their strengthening if they, united, became even more powerful.” Pompey, according to the same Cassius, was afraid of the increasing influence of Crassus and Caesar and “did not want to be crushed by them” (Dio., XXXVII, 56.3).

    It is still controversial whether Caesar even then had dictatorial plans. Plutarch claims that Caesar’s whole idea with the triumvirate was nothing more than “a coup d’état carried out unnoticed by everyone” (Plut., Caes., 13). Cassius Dio is more reserved in his assessments. In his opinion, Pompey, Caesar and Cassius came to an agreement only “to organize the republic as they pleased” (Dio., XXXVII, 57). In historiography, in general, an opinion has been established regarding the exclusively tactical goals of the triumvirs. They were more concerned about stabilizing their own position at the moment and implementing relevant bills in the interests of their many supporters, rather than about seizing power. The triumvirs proposed new ways to solve pressing social problems. At the same time, each of them also had his own interests: “Pompey sought approval of the orders he made in the East and rewards for his veterans, Caesar dreamed of a consulate in 59 BC and the implementation of a number of measures in favor of the plebs, and Crassus wanted to satisfy the interests of the horsemen and gain control of the eastern provinces" Mashkin N.A. History of ancient Rome. Ed. 3rd. M., 1956. P. 78. .

    Despite the fact that Caesar was perhaps the least influential political leader among the members of the triumvirate, in a short time he managed to become a key figure in the “alliance of three.” The triumvirs agreed to hold Caesar for the consulate so that he, as consul, could realize the interests of all members of the triumvirate. In 59 BC. With the support of Pompey's veterans, the horsemen of Crassus and the city plebs, Caesar was elected consul. The Senate protege Marcus Bibulus became the second consul.

    Having received consular powers, Caesar proposed several bills to the people's assembly. First, he put forward a plan to provide land plots to 20 thousand Pompey's veterans and land-poor citizens with three or more children. Secondly, a law was put forward to approve all orders of Pompey in the East. Thirdly, in favor of the supporters of Crassus, a reduction of the tax amount from the province of Asia was provided for by one third. In addition, Caesar demanded the adoption of a law that increased penalties for extortion of provincial governors - proteges of the Senate A.V. Zarshchikov. Caesar and the Caesarians: the role of personal grouping in the political struggle // Diss. for the job application uch. Art. k.i. N., Saratov, 2003. P. 85. . According to some authoritative historians, in particular R. Carson, it was the law on extortion that became one of the most important monuments of Caesar’s state activities, “for more than 500 years, serving as a guiding thread for Roman magistrates in the provinces” Carson R.A.G. "Caesar and the Monarchy", Greece and Rome. Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1957). P. 47. .

    Almost all ancient sources report the use of forceful methods by Caesar and his colleagues in the triumvirate when implementing legislative initiatives. For example, the authors well describe the events that accompanied the adoption of the agrarian law in favor of the soldiers of Pompey. Despite the fact that the second consul, Bibulus, spoke out against this law, the senators did not agree to put it to a vote, and the tribunes of the people imposed a “veto” (ban), Caesar cynically ignored all legal opposition. He went to the Forum and turned to the people for support, “placing Pompey next to him on one side, and Crassus on the other” (Plut., Caes., 14). As a result, succumbing to forceful pressure, the senators were forced to agree to the adoption of the law, and Caesar’s fellow consulate Marcus Bibulus was so intimidated by the triumvirs that “until the end of his consulate he did not leave the house and only expressed his protest in edicts.” Mishulin A.V. History of Ancient Rome. Course of general history. Ancient history. M., 1946. P. 223. . If you believe Suetonius, many “jokingly then began to talk not about the consulate of Caesar and Bibulus, but about the consulate of Julius and Caesar” (Suet., Iul., 20.2). Caesar also used other informal methods of struggle against his political opponents. Thus, he intimidated with false accusations the sanator Lucius Lacullus, who objected to him too sharply, and also “hired an informer against the entire hostile party (optimates) as a whole” Mashkin N.A. History of ancient Rome. Ed. 3rd. M., 1956. P. 83. .

    Caesar did not forget about his own interests. According to a draft law introduced in 59 BC. In the Senate, a supporter of Caesar - the tribune Publius Vatinius, Caesar was asked to transfer the provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyria to the administration for a five-year period with the right to recruit an army of up to three legions (10 thousand people) and wage war with neighboring tribes. In addition, Caesar was to receive the right to appoint legates of praetor rank at his own discretion, without the consent of the Senate. After the law was successfully discussed in the people's assembly, the Senate, under pressure from Pompey and Crassus, had to give Caesar also Narbonne Gaul with the right to recruit one additional legion Utchenko S.L. Julius Caesar. M., 1976. P. 101.

    In March 58 BC. AD Caesar arrived in Gaul, where he was expected to receive a loyal army, gain fame, wealth and the opportunity to interfere in the political life of Rome. The interests of Caesar and the entire triumvirate in Italy and Rome were defended by Pompey and Crassus.

    Thus, having received the consulate, Caesar fulfilled his obligations towards his fellow triumvirs, satisfied the demands of a significant part of the Roman citizens, weakened the influence of the Senate and at the same time took care of the implementation of his own vanity plans. As a result, the triumvirate grew stronger and from a secret agreement turned into a clear and significant factor in the political life of Rome. To further strengthen the “alliance of three,” informal agreements were sealed by family ties. Caesar's daughter Julia was given in marriage to Pompey, despite the fact that she was already betrothed to Servilius Caepio. Caesar himself married Calputnia, the daughter of one of Caesar’s prominent supporters, Calpurius Piso (Ibid., 21).

    By the mid-50s. I century BC. The political situation in Rome noticeably worsened, which led to a weakening of the influence of the triumvirate on the political life of Rome. Before Caesar left for Gaul, where he waged grueling wars against the Gallic tribes for several years, the allies maintained agreement among themselves and quite successfully controlled the situation. However, after Caesar’s departure to Gaul, Pompey and Crassus, due to constant quarrels with each other, were unable to consistently represent the interests of the triumvirate Mashkin N.A. History of ancient Rome. Ed. 3rd. M., 1956. P. 91. This led to the activation of other political camps, in particular supporters of the popularist Clodius Pulcher, who was elected in 58 BC. people's tribune. Clodius began to speak out both against the policies of the Senate oligarchy and against the triumvirs. Being a good orator, a decisive and daring leader, he passed a number of laws in favor of the plebs despite the opposition of the Senate, as well as Pompey and Crassus. As a result, colleges of citizens were created in the quarters of Rome, which turned into political clubs of the plebs; resolutions were implemented to abolish all payments for bread; the competencies of censors in compiling senatorial lists are limited; The procedures for holding public meetings have been significantly simplified. Wanting to strike a blow at the Senate, Clodius managed to discredit and expel one of the most authoritative leaders of the optimate camp - Marcus Tullius Cicero. In his political struggle, Clodius began to rely on the masses armed with clubs, consisting of the urban plebs, freedmen and even slaves. In contrast to the formations of Clodius, the senators created similar detachments, headed by the tribune of the people in 57 BC. Milo. Violent street brawls between political opponents began to strike fear among ordinary residents of Rome. “Often those gathered dispersed only after,” notes Plutarch, “the speaker’s platform was desecrated with corpses and stained with blood” (Plut., Caes., 28). In this situation, the influence of the power of the triumvirs noticeably weakened, and political power became fragmented. According to T. Mommsen, in Rome in the 50s BC. There were essentially three governments in operation: the formally ruling Senate, the informal triumvirate, and the semi-criminal groups of Clodius and Milona Mommsen T. History of Rome. T. 2. St. Petersburg, 1994. P. 334. .

    In 56 BC. The triumvirs, on the initiative of Caesar, attempted to restore their political authority and order in the state. In the city of Lucca, bordering Cisalpine Gaul, they made the most important state decisions that the Senate and popular comitia had to carry out. Caesar's stay in Gaul with unlimited powers was extended for five years. Pompey and Crassus received the consulate in 55 BC. After the end of their consular powers, Pompey received control of the Spanish provinces, and Crassus received Syria, which was considered the most important province in the East. As a result, the triumvirs could control the political situation throughout almost the entire territory of the Roman state. According to R. Carson, it was this decision of the triumvirs that was the prologue to the establishment of the future dictatorship of Caesar, since it was “the will of the triumvirs that largely determined the directions of the activities of the Senate, the People’s Assembly and the magistrates” Carson R. A. G. “Caesar and the Monarchy,” Greece and Rome. Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1957). P. 46. .

    Despite the fact that the three leaders were able to advance their decisions in the Senate and Comitia, in the second half of the 50s. their union ceased to exist as an influential factor in Roman politics. This was due to a number of circumstances. Firstly, Crassus, after his consular duties and departure for Syria, was in 53 BC. killed by the Parthian wars. Thus, the triumvirate automatically became the Pompey-Caesar duumvirate. Secondly, in the face of the political chaos that engulfed Rome in 52 BC. The Senate was forced to make a proposal to Pompey to accept supreme power to restore order. The situation in Rome was indeed very serious. According to Plutarch, at that time “the state was plunging into the abyss of anarchy, like a ship rushing without control” (Ibid., 28). “And many have already said openly,” Plutarch also notes, “that the state cannot be healed by anything other than autocracy” (Ibid). In this crisis situation, Pompey, as “the most authoritative, was elected “consul without a colleague” (Suet., Iul., 26), which actually meant granting him dictatorial power. Having carried out a number of decisive measures, Pompey became the most powerful man in Rome. In these conditions, he no longer needed the support of Caesar. On the contrary, trying to maintain his primacy, he was now interested in weakening his former ally, who had meanwhile acquired greater military strength and influence thanks to the successful conduct of wars in Gaul. Thirdly, he had a claim to political primacy. and Caesar himself. During his ten-year stay in Gaul, he became a very powerful and wealthy military leader, whose authority among the soldiers was extremely high, Caesar “doubled the salaries of his legionaries for eternity, gave them bread without measure and account, and sometimes gave it to each soldier. for a slave from among the captives" (Ibid., 26.3). At the same time, from afar, he tried to influence the political life of Rome. They sent gold and other loot there, which was used to bribe officials, organize feasts and gladiatorial fights for the people. Using funds from the mining, Caesar also began to build the Forum, and “the land under it alone cost more than a hundred million” (Ibid., 26.2). Caesar was aware of his strength and did not want to have a rival in the person of the influential Pompey. “His glory had already equaled the glory of Pompey’s victories,” writes Plutarch, “and now he took advantage of all the occasions that Pompey himself and the conditions of the time, and the decline of civil life in Rome gave him” (Plut., Caes., 28). Thus, the triumvirate finally disintegrated, and open conflict was brewing between Pompey and Caesar.

    Thus, the period of the triumvirate brought significant political and military conquests to Caesar. From the moment the “alliance of three” was concluded, Caesar played a leading role in it, despite the lack of authority in comparison with his colleagues in the agreement. He is elected consul and successfully implements the plans of the triumvirs, aimed at fighting the Senate, satisfying the interests of supporters and his own political ambitions. Relying on the support of Pompey and Crassus, Caesar achieved the transfer to his control of Cisalpine and Narbonne Gaul, as well as Illyria.

    Of the three leaders who united, it was Caesar who gained perhaps the most significant political dividends from the triumvirate. Waging wars in distant Gaul, he was able to become a famous commander and influential politician, who had enormous support from the army and equally enormous material resources, with the help of which many of Rome’s political problems were solved. Over time, however, the triumvirate exhausted its capabilities. After the death of Crassus and due to the sharply worsened political situation in Rome, the idea of ​​fighting the Senate lost its relevance. The contradictions between Pompey and Caesar, who claimed sole political leadership, came to the fore.

    The military-political confrontation that arose between Pompey and Caesar unfolded against the backdrop of growing chaos in the Roman state. After two years of social upheaval, in August 50 BC. Cicero wrote: “Unfortunately, I do not foresee peace this year, and the closer the discord that is inevitable comes (meaning the clash between Pompey and Caesar), the more clearly this danger is visible.” Cicero Marcus Tullius. Letters // Reader on the history of ancient Rome. // Edited by V.I. Kuzishchina. M., 1987. P. 152. . The formal reason for the open clash of the former triumvirs was the refusal of Pompey and the Senate to give Caesar the opportunity in absentia, without resigning as proconsul in Gaul, to stand as a candidate for the consular elections in Rome in 49 BC. AD According to the Senate resolution, Caesar had to resign his command, disband all his troops and return to Rome as an honest man. However, Caesar feared “that he could not be unharmed if he parted with the army” Cicero Marcus Tullius. Letters. Right there. P. 152. . For their part, they were offered compromise options. For example, he agreed to disband his troops, but only “if Pompey did the same” (Ibid., 30).

    The irreconcilable position of the Senate and Pompey forced Caesar to begin military operations, which relatively quickly took on the character of a civil war. Almost all layers of Roman society, as well as numerous peoples in the provinces, were drawn into it. On the eve of the emerging armed struggle, Cicero perspicaciously noted: “In these discords, as I foresee, on the side of Gnaeus Pompey will be the Senate and those who carry out the trial; those who live with fear and without hope will join Caesar.” Cicero Marcus Tullius. Letters. Right there. P. 153. . This assessment made by Cicero is not accidental. While the Senate aristocracy defended its own interests, Caesar's program reflected a wider range of social interests. It provided for the establishment of unlimited power similar to the Hellenistic monarchy, where the interests of not only one class (for example, the Senate), but all Roman citizens and the population of the Roman provinces would be expressed. This is probably why Caesar was able to attract quite a lot of people to his side soon after he crossed the Rubicon River and entered Italy. March 1, 49 BC, i.e. just two months after Caesar’s legions marched on Rome, Cicero noted: “People from the municipalities talk to me a lot, the villagers talk a lot; they care about nothing at all except the fields, except the estates, except their money. And this is how things turn out. : the one in whom they were previously confident, they fear (Pompey), but they love the one they feared (Caesar)." Cicero Marcus Tullius. Letters. Right there. P. 154. .

    The rapid advance of Caesar's army deep into Italy caused a mass exodus of the population. “A stampede began everywhere in fear and tears,” notes Appian (App., B.C., II, 35). Soon Rome was filled with a stream of refugees from surrounding cities and villages. In a state of chaos, the authorities were unable to maintain order either by persuasion or orders. Succumbing to general panic, Pompey and most of the senators fled from Rome. According to ancient authors, on the way to Rome, Caesar tried everywhere to show his loyalty and humane treatment, thanks to which mass panic stopped, and, having occupied Rome, Caesar found it “in a calmer state than he expected” (Plut., Caes., 35 ). Even his political opponent Cicero praised Caesar's actions. In one of his letters to a certain Titus Pomponius, he writes: “What kind of a person appeared in the state, how active, how vigilant, how prepared. I swear, if he does not execute anyone and does not take anything from anyone, then those who are extremely I was afraid they would love him extremely" Cicero Marcus Tullius. Letters. Right there. . At the same time, having taken possession of Rome, Caesar made it clear to the remaining senators and officials that from now on “everything will come only from him” (App., B.C., II, 107). So, contrary to the law, he seized the rich state treasury, and the people's tribune Metellus, who was going to prevent this arbitrariness, declared: “If you are dissatisfied with my actions, then go away. And you and all my enemies whom I captured here - you are all completely in my power" (Plut., Caes., 35). According to Cicero, Caesar did not carry out reprisals only because he “considered gentleness pleasing to the people.” Cicero Marcus Tullius. Letters. Right there. .

    While Pompey, who had fled from Rome, was gathering his troops in Greece, Caesar defeated his main forces in Spain, consisting of eight legions. There, as in Italy, he showed mercy to the vanquished and enlisted many of Pompey's captured legionnaires into his ranks. After returning from Spain, Caesar became dictator. This extraordinary position of six months was, as we have said above, a traditional part of the Roman system of government. Not used since the Hannibal Wars, in the 1st century. BC. she was resuscitated by Sulla. Caesar's dictatorship was not something out of the ordinary. Just like Sulla, Caesar formalized his position of power through the Senate appointment of Billows R. A. Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome. L. - N. Y., Routledge, 2009. P. 239.

    However, 11 days after taking office, he resigned his dictatorial powers, declared himself consul and moved against Pompey in Greece. 6 June 48 BC In the north of Greece, in Vessaly, a decisive battle took place between the opponents, during which the Pompeians were defeated, and Pompey himself fled to Egypt, where Mommsen T. was treacherously killed. History of Rome.T. 2. St. Petersburg, 1994.S. 347. .

    Thus, the physical elimination of a dangerous and influential competitor, Caesar’s military strength and authority, his flexible policy towards all segments of the population, as well as the ineffectiveness of republican institutions of power during a period of crisis for the state were the main prerequisites for the establishment of Caesar’s dictatorship.

    Victory in the civil war brought Caesar control of the Roman state. If back in the fall of 48 BC. Caesar received dictatorial powers from the consul Servilius Isauricus for a period of one year, in the spring of 47 BC. - for 10 years in a row, then in 44 BC. he had already received the powers of a permanent dictator. This was a radical departure from the Roman tradition, which regarded dictatorship "as an extraordinary magistracy of strictly limited duration" Billows R. A. Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome. L. - N. Y., Routledge, 2009. P. 241.

    Introduced, for example, in case of restoration of order in the state. Moreover, the legitimacy of Caesar's power rested more on recognition of his authority than on fear of force. The need for a dominant leader to control the political system was recognized in Rome in the years leading up to the civil war. Even Cicero, who was a zealous supporter of republican government, recognized the need for the state "a kind of trustee who could use the generally recognized auctoritate to maintain order" Cicero Marcus Tullius. Dialogues: About the state. About the laws // Reader on the history of ancient Rome. // Edited by V.I. Kuzishchina. M., 1987. P. 208. . Thus, the elevation of Caesar to the rank of dictator was, in essence, a recognition of the need for a dominant trustee who would prevent violence, arbitrariness and corruption in Roman society.

    Caesar's monocracy was complemented by other state powers. He received the lifelong competence of the people's tribune and censor with the right to review the lists of senators and observe morals. In addition, the Senate and the people gave him the power of recommendation. As a dictator, Caesar could recommend his candidates for magisterial positions (consuls, praetors, aediles). True, “with the exception of applicants for the consulate, half of the candidates were elected at the request of the people, and half by appointment of Caesar” (Suet., Iul., 41.2).

    The Senate, which was previously the highest state body of power, became essentially an advisory body under the dictator Caesar, who filled it with more than half of his proteges. At the same time, using the right of censor, Caesar increased the number of senators from 600 to 900 people. The other highest body of the republican constitution, the people's assembly, has practically ceased to act as an independent institution. The gatherings at the Forum consisted mainly of Caesar's clients or his friends, who approved the dictator's candidacies during the election of magistrates. The executive authorities were reorganized in accordance with Caesar's wishes. As the volume of government affairs increased markedly, the dictator increased the number of traditional magistrates. Under Caesar, they began to elect 16 praetors instead of eight, six aediles instead of four, and 40 quaestors instead of 24. If Caesar’s candidates proposed for occupying these posts also required the formal consent of the people, then lower-ranking officials (legates, prefects, procurators) were appointed personally dictator. Especially many of these officials were sent to the provinces to manage state property, finances and control the collection of taxes Billows R. A. Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome. L. - N. Y., Routledge, 2009. P. 244-245.

    In addition to the land plots, “Caesar paid his veterans 24 thousand sesterces from the booty” (Suet., Iul., 38). Thus, the adaptation of the soldiers to peaceful life went smoothly and the demands of the legionnaires were satisfied.

    When resolving the debt issue, Caesar also chose a compromise path, which, if possible, did not infringe on the interests of any of the parties. He refused full cassation of debts, which could destabilize ownership relations. Debts were reduced by deducting the interest paid from the principal amount, and the remainder could be paid in equal installments over three years. The loan interest was reduced to 6% per year. For violating this regulation, the moneylender was severely punished. Caesar also canceled rent arrears in Rome and Italy, and “he exempted those who paid for housing in Rome up to 2 thousand sesterces and in Italy up to 500 thousand from payment for a year” (Ibid., 38.2) .

    The issue of distributing free bread to the Roman plebs was also relevant. Since 58 BC. free grain distributions were established, the list of recipients of this alms swelled to 300 thousand people. Caesar made a thorough revision of this list and reduced the number of recipients to 150 thousand people, significantly reducing the burden on the treasury and grain suppliers, “and so that new unrest could not arise when updating the lists, he decided that every year the praetor, by lot, would replace the deceased recipients with new ones from among those not included in the lists" (Ibid., 41.3). To please the people, Caesar practiced periodic generous distributions of funds and products from his own reserves. So, in memory of his deceased daughter Julia, he “distributed to the people ten measures of grain and the same number of pounds of butter, and 300 sesterces in money.” Caesar's generosity was especially impressive after successful military campaigns. For example, “after the Spanish triumph, he organized an incredibly rich feast and distribution of meat” (Ibid., 38). The dictator did not forget about the people’s craving for all kinds of spectacles and performances. During the Caesarian era, the sphere of entertainment acquired a very wide scope: “Gladiator battles and theatrical performances were organized in all quarters of the city and in all languages, and circus races, and athletic competitions, and sea battles” (Ibid., 39).

    The main direction of Caesar's provincial policy was the massive granting of Roman citizenship rights to the local nobility. For the first time in Roman history, the right of a Roman citizen was granted to an entire province - Cisalpine Gaul. In Transalpine Gaul, some cities and communities were awarded Roman citizenship. Actually, measures to expand citizenship rights were linked to solving the problem of increasing the birth rate of Roman citizens. Since from 130 BC. The birth rate was steadily falling; measures to stimulate it were required. Caesar instituted a financial rewards program that encouraged people to have three or more children. To control emigration and support the population of Italy, a rule was established that “no citizen over 20 and under 40 years of age, not in military service, can leave Italy for more than three years.” Other original measures were also implemented in this direction (Ibid., 41.3). In particular, “Caesar granted Roman citizenship to all those who practiced medicine in Rome, and to all teachers of the noble arts” Cicero Marcus Tullius. Letters // Ibid. M., 1987. P. 155. .

    The dictatorship of Caesar was perceived very painfully in the circles of the Senate aristocracy. A case is widely described in the literature when senators, who appeared in full force to present the most respectable decrees to Caesar, “were severely offended by the fact that the dictator received them sitting down” (Plut., Caes., 60). The Roman nobility had a deeply rooted belief in the justice of only the collegial system of oligarchic government. Caesar's autocratic regime, although recognized as temporarily necessary, was categorically unacceptable in the long term. Monarchist sentiments were also rejected by the people. So, for example, during one of the holidays, the attempts of Anthony, one of Caesar’s comrades, to crown the statue of the dictator with the royal crown Carson R. A. G. “Caesar and the Monarchy” were met with exclamations of disapproval from the crowd. Greece and Rome. Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1957). P. 52. . However, with the beginning of the establishment of the dictatorship, the Senate and the people “themselves handed Caesar powers beyond all measure: permanent consulate, lifelong dictatorship, care of morals, then the name of the emperor, the nickname of the father of the fatherland, a statue among the royal statues, an exalted place in the theater.” (Suet., Iul., 76). In a certain sense, Roman citizens were in a state of divided desires. On the one hand, they needed a strong dictatorial power capable of ensuring stability in society, on the other hand, they remained staunch supporters of the republican form of government, based on collegiality and the turnover of all officials. Caesar successfully solved the most pressing socio-economic problems, strengthened the institutions of government and restored public order, but “his omnipotence, to which there was no end in sight, caused increasing fears” (Plut., Caes., 60).

    It was on this basis that a conspiracy against Caesar matured among the senators, at the center of which were Cassius Longinus, Decimus Brutus and Marcus Brutus. It is noteworthy that Marcus Brutus justified the murder of Caesar by saying that he “had become a tyrant, and the duty of all honest men is to kill the tyrant” Billows R. A. Julius Caesar. The Colossus of Rome. L. - N. Y., Routledge, 2009. P. 250.

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