2.1. Principles, methods and means of ensuring operational safety.

Principle- this is an idea, a thought, a basic position. Method is a path, a way to achieve a goal, based on knowledge of the most general laws. The principles and methods of ensuring security are interconnected in a certain way and relate to particular, special ones, in contrast to the general methods inherent in dialectics and logic.

Facilities ensuring security in a broad sense is a constructive, organizational, material embodiment, specific implementation of principles and methods.

Since any activity can cause harm to a person, life safety studies the dangers of the industrial, domestic and urban environment both in the conditions of everyday life and in the event of emergency situations of man-made and natural origin.

The basis scientific problem of security a person is entitled axiom about potential danger, which states that any activity is potentially dangerous. This axiom has at least two important conclusions necessary for the formation of security systems:

The inability to develop (find) an absolutely safe type of human activity (for example, when considering human production activities, it is impossible to create an absolutely safe technique or technological process);

No type of activity can ensure absolute safety for humans (there are no zero risks).

The implementation of life safety goals and objectives includes the following main stages of scientific activity:

Identification and description of zones affected by dangers of the technosphere and its individual elements (enterprises, machines, devices, etc.);

Development and implementation of the most effective systems and methods of protection against hazards;

Formation of systems for monitoring hazards and managing the safety state of the technosphere;

Development and implementation of measures to eliminate the consequences of hazards;

Organization of training of the population in the basics of safety and training of life safety specialists.

The main task of life safety science is the preventive analysis of the sources and causes of hazards, forecasting and assessing their impact in space and time.

When determining main practical functions of the BJD should be considered historical sequence of occurrence of negative impacts, formation of zones of their action and protective measures.

The identity of the sources of impact in all zones of the technosphere requires the formation of common approaches and solutions in such areas of protective activities as labor safety, life safety and environmental protection. All this is achieved by implementing the basic functions of the BZD.

These include:

Description of the living space by its zoning according to the values ​​of negative factors based on an examination of the sources of negative impacts, their relative location and mode of action, as well as taking into account the climatic, geographical and other characteristics of the region or area of ​​activity;

Formation of safety and environmental requirements for sources of negative factors - assignment of maximum permissible emissions (MPE), discharges (MPD), energy impacts (MPE), acceptable risk, etc.;

Organization of monitoring of the state of the habitat and inspection control of sources of negative impacts;

Development and use of eco-bioprotection products;

Implementation of measures to eliminate the consequences of accidents and other emergencies;

Training the population in the basics of safety and safety and training specialists at all levels and forms of activity to implement safety and environmental requirements.

The main directions of practical activity in the field of life safety are the prevention of causes and the prevention of conditions for the occurrence of dangerous situations.

2.2. Concept of risk.

In cases where flows of mass and energy from a source of negative impact into the environment can increase rapidly and reach excessively high values ​​(for example, during accidents or other emergency situations), the acceptable probability (risk) of the occurrence of such an event is taken as a safety criterion.

Risk is the likelihood of a negative impact occurring in the area where a person is present.

The value of the risk from a specific danger can be obtained from statistics of accidents, cases of illness, cases of violent acts against members of society for various periods of time: shift, day, week, quarter, year. The likelihood of emergency situations occurring in relation to technical objects and technologies is assessed on the basis of statistical data or theoretical studies.

When using statistical data amount of risk determined by the formula

R = (N emergency / N o) ≤ R extra,

Where R- risk; N emergency - number of emergency events per year; N o - total number of events per year; R additional - acceptable risk.

Hazards can be realized in the form of injuries or diseases only if the zone of danger formation (noxosphere) intersects with the zone of human activity (homosphere). In production conditions, where the work area and the source of danger are one of the elements of the production environment, there are individual and collective (social) risk.

Individual risk characterizes the realization of the danger of a certain type of activity for a specific individual. The indicators of industrial injuries and occupational morbidity used in our country, such as the frequency of accidents and occupational diseases, are an expression of individual occupational risk.

Collective risk- is the injury or death of two or more people from exposure to dangerous and harmful production factors. The use of risk as a single index of harm when assessing the effect of various negative factors on a person is now beginning to be used for a reasonable comparison of the safety of various sectors of the economy and types of work, arguing for social advantages and benefits for a certain category of people.

Acceptable risk. This is such a low level of mortality, injury or disability of people that does not affect the economic performance of an enterprise, industry or state. The need to formulate the concept of acceptable (permissible) risk is due to the impossibility of creating an absolutely safe activity (technological process). Acceptable risk combines technical, economic, social and political aspects and represents a compromise between the level of safety and the ability to achieve it. The economic possibilities for improving the safety of technical systems are not unlimited. Thus, in production, spending excessive funds on improving the safety of technical systems can cause damage to the social sphere of production (reducing costs for the purchase of special clothing, medical care, etc.).

Currently there are ideas about quantities acceptable (tolerable) and unacceptable risk. An unacceptable risk has a probability of negative impact of more than 10 -3, acceptable - less than 10 -6. With risk values ​​from 10 -3 to 10 -6, it is customary to distinguish a transition region of risk values.

There are four methodological approach to risk determination:

1. Engineering, based on statistics, frequency calculation, probabilistic safety analysis, construction of hazard trees.

2. Model is based on building models of the impact of harmful factors on an individual, social, professional groups, etc.

3. Expert, in which the probability of events is determined based on a survey of experienced specialists, i.e. experts.

4. Sociological, based on a population survey.

It is necessary to use these methods in combination, since they reflect different aspects of risk, and for the first two methods there is not always sufficient data.

2.3. Security concept. Security systems.

Safety- this is a state of activity in which, with a certain probability, potential hazards affecting human health are excluded.

All dangers are then real when they affect specific objects (objects of protection). Objects of protection, like sources of danger, are diverse. Every component of the environment can be protected from hazards. In order of priority, the objects of protection include: person, society, state, natural environment (biosphere), technosphere, etc.

Speaking about the implementation of a security state, it is necessary to consider the object of protection and the set of dangers acting on it.

Security systems according to the objects of protection that actually exist at present, they fall into the following main types: system personal and collective security a person in the process of his life; system environmental protection(biosphere); system state security and system global security.

Integrated system in production conditions the following protective measures are taken: legal, organizational, economic, technical, sanitary and hygienic and therapeutic and preventive.

To ensure the safety of a specific production activity, the following three conditions (tasks) must be met:

- First- a detailed analysis (identification) of the hazards generated in the activity being studied is carried out. The analysis should be carried out in the following sequence: elements of the habitat (working environment) are identified as sources of danger. Then the hazards present in the activity under consideration are assessed according to qualitative, quantitative, spatial and temporal indicators.

- Second- effective measures are being developed to protect people and the environment from identified hazards. Effective means those measures to protect people at work that, with a minimum of material costs, give the greatest effect: they reduce morbidity, injury and mortality.

- Third- effective measures to protect against the residual risk of this activity (technological process) are developed. They are necessary, since it is impossible to ensure absolute safety of activities. These measures are used when it is necessary to save a person or habitat. In production conditions, such work is performed by health services, fire safety, emergency response services, etc.

Safety - state of the protected object, in which the impact on it of all flows of matter, energy and information does not exceed the maximum permissible values.

Thus, a person’s desire to achieve high productivity of their activities, comfort and personal safety in an intensively developing technosphere is accompanied by an increase in the number of tasks solved in the “human life safety” system.

Solving problems related to ensuring the safety of human life is the foundation for solving security problems at higher levels: technospheric, regional, biosphere, global.

To fulfill the conditions (tasks) for ensuring the safety of activities, it is necessary to select the principles of ensuring safety, determine methods for ensuring the safety of activities and use means to ensure the safety of humans and the working environment.

Preventive - warning, protective; anticipating the actions of the opposing party.

Tasks and functions of the Belarusian Railways

The USSR Civil Defense became the foundation for the organization of a centralized warning system for government bodies and the population, the accumulation of a fund of shelters and shelters, personal protective equipment, stocks of technical means and instruments for equipping forces, etc.

However, this system was based on specific social and economic conditions. Therefore, existing within the framework of a rigid centralized state, the USSR Civil Defense also bore the negative features of an administrative-command system. The lack of a legal and economic framework in this area deprived civil society of reliable support.

In addition, in the late 80s. XX century A number of disasters occurred (the Chernobyl accident in 1986, the Spitak earthquake in 1988, the train crash in Bashkiria in 1989), which demonstrated the low degree of readiness of civil defense forces to eliminate peacetime emergencies. This led to the reform of the USSR Civil Defense, which in the early 90s. XX century became an integral part of the Unified State System for the Prevention and Elimination of Emergency Situations.

It should be noted that in our country, citizens were trained in the field of security. Until the beginning of the 90s. XX century the disciplines “Occupational Safety”, “Civil Defense” and “Nature Conservation” were taught as independent disciplines. However, as it turned out later, these sciences have a lot in common. All of them study the interaction of man and his environment (natural, man-made), their mutual influence, and also develop measures to preserve human life and health in the process of this interaction. Moreover, it was discovered that harmful production factors affect not only people working in industry, but also the entire population of cities as a whole.

In the last years of the 20th century. The conclusion has become generally accepted that the system of knowledge about the protection of people and the environment from dangers caused by human activity should become an independent science. Therefore, a new integral academic discipline was created - “Life Safety” (LS). In 1990, a life safety course was introduced into the curriculum of universities, and in 1991, the course “Fundamentals of Life Safety” began to be taught in schools.

By the end of the 20th century. It was discovered that the dangers are constantly growing, and the means of protection against them are being created and improved with a delay. The severity of security problems has always been assessed by the result of the impact of negative factors - the number of victims, material damage, the disappearance of many species of animals and plants.

Protective measures formulated on such a basis turned out to be untimely, insufficient and, as a result, ineffective. An example is the environmental boom that began in the 70s of the 20th century. with a thirty-year delay, which to this day in many countries, including Russia, has not gained the necessary strength.

Assessing the consequences of the impact of negative factors based on the final result is a gross miscalculation of humanity, which led to huge casualties and a crisis in the biosphere.

The problems facing humanity at the beginning of the 21st century are too great. In particular, this is the problem of the accumulation of nuclear weapons. As studies have shown, its use is simply impossible, since it would lead to a “nuclear winter” - a worldwide environmental catastrophe that would destroy the entire human race.

Another serious problem is the degradation of the natural environment. Due to the growing scale of industrial production and its impact on the environment, the ability of many ecosystems to clean themselves has been exhausted. It turned out that even if we protect humans, we do not guarantee the safety of flora and fauna.

In addition, the dangers of international terrorism, global organized crime, the criminalization of entire states and regions, the spread of drugs, infectious diseases, etc. have increased significantly.

Under these conditions, the approach to ensuring the security of humanity, based on the principle of “react and correct” (simply applying protective measures, ascertaining damage, assessing consequences) is no longer sufficient to preserve human civilization. Action on the principle of “anticipate and prevent” is required. And to implement this principle, it is necessary to form a safe type of person, to prepare a citizen competent in security matters.

Tasks and functions of the Belarusian Railways

Life safety is a field of scientific knowledge that studies common dangers that threaten every person and develops appropriate methods of protection against them in any human environment. In addition, life safety can be called the science of safe interaction between humans and the environment.

The main goal of safety science is to protect humans from negative impacts of anthropogenic and natural origin and to achieve comfortable living conditions.

The means to achieve this goal is the implementation by society of knowledge and skills aimed at reducing physical, chemical, biological and other negative impacts in the technosphere to acceptable values. This determines the body of knowledge included in the science of life safety, as well as the place of life safety in the general system of knowledge.

The objectives of the BZD are:

1. Identification (recognition) of hazards - their types, spatial and temporal coordinates, magnitude, possible damage, likelihood of occurrence, etc.
2. Prevention of possible dangers.
3. Development of systems and methods of protection against hazards.
4. Formation of systems for monitoring hazards and managing the state of environmental safety.
5. Development of measures to eliminate the consequences of hazards.

The listed tasks of the BJD can be formulated in one motto: “anticipate danger, avoid it if possible, and act if necessary!”

BZD carries out an examination of the sources of negative impacts, their relative location and mode of action, taking into account the climatic, geographical and other characteristics of the region.

The function of safety science is also the formation of safety and environmental requirements for sources of negative factors - establishing the values ​​of maximum permissible concentrations of harmful substances in the environment, maximum permissible emissions, discharges, energy impacts, acceptable risk, etc.

The Belarusian Railways organizes monitoring of the state of the habitat and inspection control of sources of negative impacts. Important areas of activity of the Belarusian Railways are the organization of training the population in the basics of safety and training of specialists in the field of safety, the development and use of environmental and bioprotection means, as well as the implementation of measures to eliminate the consequences of accidents and other emergencies.

Like any other science, BJD has a number of axioms, that is, provisions that do not require proof.

The first axiom is about the danger of activity. Any activity is potentially dangerous. Since the appearance of the species Homo sapiens on Earth, humans have existed in conditions of constantly changing potential dangers. There is no absolute security.

The second axiom is about the optimal factor. Optimal environmental factors do not cause diseases or deviations in health that are detected by modern research methods during work or in the long-term life of the present and subsequent generations. For any environmental factor, such an optimal intensity of exposure or concentration can be found.

The third axiom is about the resistance of the human body to external factors. The human body's resistance to external factors is not unlimited, and its limits vary from person to person.

The fourth axiom is about risk. The risk of exposure to hazards is always present. The magnitude of the risk is different and depends on the characteristics of the “person - environment” system.

The fifth axiom is about the priority of security problems. Dangers threaten not only individuals, but also society and the state as a whole. Therefore, preventing dangers and protecting against them is the most important state task.

Security science includes several sections. The first of them, the general theory of safety, is a system of concepts and ideas designed to study the full range of dangers to humans from their interaction with the environment and identify a comprehensive system of safety measures.

The natural aspects of safe human interaction with the environment are developed by ecology. Based on the study of the patterns of interaction between nature and humans, she gives recommendations on nature conservation, environmental management and reproduction of natural resources.

Issues of life safety in production conditions are considered by labor protection. She researches industrial hazards and develops methods to protect workers.

Separate sections include “Life Safety in Emergency Conditions,” which provides protection for the population in case of accidents and natural disasters, as well as “Basics of a Healthy Lifestyle,” which examines ways and means of maintaining health.

The feasibility of studying life safety as a scientific field and a comprehensive academic discipline is associated with the constant increase in the negative impact of economic activity on the environment that surrounds humans. Declining environmental quality, the production of new, previously unknown substances, genetic modification of agricultural plants, dilapidation of production equipment and technological processes, the use of a large number of chemicals and various mechanisms in everyday life require knowledge of the factors that affect the human condition, and the most necessary methods and methods. possible reduction of the negative impact of these factors. Life safety is a complex discipline that is based on knowledge from many disciplines: the fundamentals of ecology, psychology and labor physiology, chemistry, physics, sociology, demography, and requires adherence to a healthy lifestyle.

The concept of “life safety” is very multifaceted and also means the science of safe human interaction with the technosphere, and in a broader sense, with the environment. In other words, traditionally in this scientific direction, only local the life activity system as forming a kind of security foundation for a higher level system, the so-called global life activity system. Accordingly, it is possible to identify a space of local life safety, which forms part of a more general space of global life safety.

In addition, speaking about local life safety, it should be taken into account that recently there has also been a tendency to generalize the consideration of life safety as a complex system property, requiring the use of a systematic approach to the problem of security of political, business, information and other types of activities that are not so much technogenic, how much social character.

Risk is the ratio of certain realized hazards (injury, occupational disease, death at work) to the possible number for a certain period of time.

To analyze the state of labor protection in production, individual, social and technical risks can be distinguished.

Individual risk characterizes the danger of a certain type for an individual. Social risk (group) is the risk of danger for a certain group of people (including those united along professional lines).

Technical risk expresses the probability of accidents during the operation of machinery and equipment, the implementation of technological processes, and the operation of industrial buildings.

Thus, reducing the number of negative production factors, i.e. by reducing the base of the pyramid, the number of accidents can be proportionally reduced. Consequently, the main strategy in reducing production risk appears to be a scrupulous identification of negative factors in the labor production process and the systematic elimination of these factors at all stages of the labor process and at all stages of the life cycle of elements of the production environment. First of all, the factors that cause accidents at work are determined and, if possible, completely eliminated.

Life safety problems must be solved on a scientific basis.

Science is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality.

In the near future, humanity must learn to predict negative impacts and ensure the safety of decisions made at the stage of their development, and to protect against existing negative factors, create and actively use protective equipment and measures, limiting in every possible way the areas of action and levels of negative factors.

The implementation of goals and objectives in the “human life safety” system is a priority and should be developed on a scientific basis.

The science of life safety explores the world of hazards operating in the human environment, developing systems and methods for protecting people from dangers. In the modern understanding, life safety studies the dangers of the industrial, domestic and urban environment both in the conditions of everyday life and in the event of emergency situations of man-made and natural origin. The implementation of life safety goals and objectives includes the following main stages of scientific activity:

identification and description of zones affected by dangers of the technosphere and its individual elements (enterprises, machines, devices, etc.);

development and implementation of the most effective systems and methods of protection against hazards;

formation of systems for monitoring hazards and managing the safety state of the technosphere;

development and implementation of measures to eliminate the consequences of hazards;

organization of training of the population in the basics of safety and training of life safety specialists.

The main task of life safety science is the preventive analysis of the sources and causes of hazards, forecasting and assessing their impact in space and time.

A modern theoretical basis for BJD should contain, at a minimum:

methods for analyzing hazards generated by elements of the technosphere;

the basics of a comprehensive description of negative factors in space and time, taking into account the possibility of their combined impact on humans in the technosphere;

the basis for the formation of initial environmental indicators for newly created or recommended elements of the technosphere, taking into account its state;

basics of managing safety indicators of the technosphere, intentions and means of protection;

the basis for the formation of safety requirements for operators of technical systems and the population of the technosphere.

When determining the main practical functions of BZD, it is necessary to take into account the historical sequence of occurrence of negative impacts, the formation of zones of their action and protective measures. For quite a long time, the negative factors of the technosphere had a major impact on people only in the sphere of production, forcing him to develop safety measures. The need for more complete human protection in production areas has led to occupational safety and health. Today, the negative influence of the technosphere has expanded to the limits when people in urban space and housing, the biosphere adjacent to industrial zones, have also become objects of protection.

In almost all cases of hazards, the sources of impact are elements of the technosphere with their emissions, discharges, solid waste, energy fields and radiation. The identity of the sources of impact in all zones of the technosphere inevitably requires the formation of common approaches and solutions in such areas of protective activities as labor safety, life safety and environmental protection. All this is achieved by implementing the basic functions of the BZD. These include:

description of the living space by its zoning according to the values ​​of negative factors based on an examination of the sources of negative impacts, their relative location and mode of action, as well as taking into account the climatic, geographical and other characteristics of the region or area of ​​activity;

formation of safety and environmental requirements for sources of negative factors - assignment of maximum permissible emissions (MPE), discharges (MPD), energy impacts (MPE), acceptable risk, etc.;

organization of monitoring of the state of the habitat and inspection control of sources of negative impacts;

development and use of eco-bioprotection means;

implementation of measures to eliminate the consequences of accidents and other emergencies;

training the population in the basics of BJD and training specialists

all levels and forms of activity to implement safety and environmental requirements.

Not all functions of BZD are now equally developed and put into practice. There are certain developments in the field of creation and application of environmental and bioprotection means, in the formation of safety and environmental requirements for the most significant sources of negative impacts, in organizing monitoring of the state of the living environment in industrial and urban environments. At the same time, only recently have the foundations for the examination of sources of negative impacts, the foundations for preventive analysis of negative impacts and their monitoring in the technosphere emerged and are being formed.

The main directions of practical activity in the field of safety are the prevention of causes and the prevention of conditions for the occurrence of dangerous situations.

Analysis of real situations, events and factors today allows us to formulate a number of axioms of science about life safety in the technosphere.

So, the world of man-made dangers is completely understandable and that a person has enough means and ways to protect himself from man-made dangers. The existence of man-made hazards and their high significance in modern society are due to insufficient human attention to the problem of man-made safety, propensity to take risks and neglect the danger. This is largely due to limited human knowledge about the world of dangers and the negative consequences of their manifestation.

In principle, the impact of harmful man-made factors can be completely eliminated by humans; the impact of man-made traumatic factors is limited by acceptable risk due to the improvement of sources of hazards and the use of protective equipment; exposure to natural hazards can be limited by prevention and protection measures.

Main functions of the BZD

Effect on the body:
2.burn

Current exposure time

Current Flow Path

Frequency and type of current

Events

Electrical injuries

Electric shock


Step voltage

Fire extinguishing agents and fire equipment

Primary equipment means manual, mobile and stationary fire extinguishers, internal fire hydrants, sand boxes with a volume of 0.5, 1 m3 and 3 m3, equipped with shovels, fire shields, equipped with a set of equipment. Equipment: fire shield with equipment, foam fire extinguisher, carbon dioxide fire extinguisher, powder fire extinguisher, fire motor pump, instruction posters, manuals, stands. The main means of firefighting equipment are fire engines (fire trucks, fire trains, fire ships, firefighting aircraft (and helicopters). Firefighting equipment also includes stationary fire extinguishing and fire alarm installations, fire extinguishers, fire hydrants (and other firefighting equipment for supply of fire extinguishing agents to the fire site

Fire extinguishing agents include: fire axes, crowbar, hook, shovel, bayonet shovel, buckets, fire extinguishers, boxes of sand.

Fire equipment also includes stationary fire extinguishing and fire alarm installations, fire extinguishers, fire hydrants, etc.

Natural ventilation

With natural ventilation, air exchange occurs due to the difference in pressure outside and inside the building.
First aid for fainting must be provided correctly. The victim’s body must be placed in such a position that his head is lower than his torso, his legs should be raised slightly, and tight clothing should be unbuttoned (tie, shirt collar, bodice). If possible, it is necessary to provide the patient with access to fresh air. You also need to bring cotton wool soaked in ammonia to the patient’s nose. You need to rub this cotton wool on your temples. If you don’t have ammonia on hand, you can moisten a cotton swab with vinegar or cologne. After fainting, the victim should be given strong tea or coffee. Providing first aid for fainting should help the patient come to his senses. If these measures do not produce results and the victim does not regain consciousness, it is necessary to urgently call the ambulance service. Even if the fainting ends safely, you need to consult a doctor.

Legal basis of BJD

The legal basis for ensuring life safety consists of the relevant laws and regulations adopted by the representative bodies of the Russian Federation (until 1992, RSFSR) and its member republics, as well as by-laws: presidential decrees, regulations adopted by the governments of the Russian Federation (RF) and its constituent republics state entities, local authorities and specially authorized bodies. Among them are primarily the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, the State Committee of the Russian Federation for Environmental Protection, the Ministry of Labor and Social Development of the Russian Federation, the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Civil Defense, Emergency Situations and Disaster Relief and their territorial bodies

The legal basis for environmental protection in the country and provision of necessary working conditions is the RSFSR Law “On the Sanitary and Epidemiological Welfare of the Population” (1991), in accordance with which sanitary legislation was introduced, including the specified law and regulations establishing safety criteria and (or ) the harmlessness of environmental factors to humans and the requirements for ensuring favorable conditions for their life. A number of requirements for labor protection and the environment are fixed in the RSFSR Law “On Enterprises and Entrepreneurial Activities” (1991) and in the Russian Federation Law “On the Protection of Consumer Rights” (1992).

The most important legislative act aimed at ensuring environmental safety is the Russian Federation Law “On Environmental Protection” (2002).

Among other legislative acts in the field of environmental protection, we note the Water Code of the Russian Federation (1995), the Land Code of the Russian Federation (2001), the laws of the Russian Federation “On subsoil” (1992) and “On environmental assessment” (1995). ).

Among the legislative acts on labor protection, we note the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, which establishes basic legal guarantees in terms of ensuring labor protection.

The legal basis for organizing work in emergency situations and in connection with the liquidation of their consequences is the laws of the Russian Federation “On the protection of the population and territory from emergency situations of a natural and man-made nature” (1994), “On fire safety” (1994), “On use of atomic energy" (1995). Among the by-laws in this area, we note the decree of the Government of the Russian Federation “On a unified state system for the prevention and liquidation of emergency situations” (1995)

Operating mode the enterprise provides for the number of shifts per day, the duration of the shift in hours, the length of the working week and the total operating time of the enterprise, workshop during the calendar period (day, month, quarter, year). Based on this, work and rest regimes are divided into intra-shift, daily, weekly and annual.

An optimal regime of work and rest is the most important condition for maintaining high human performance. The work regime refers to the order of alternation and the duration of periods of work and rest. By introducing physiologically based breaks for a certain time during the workday and using them rationally, the onset of fatigue can be prevented and slowed down. Regulated breaks are effective in the initial stages of fatigue and if they do not impair work performance.

The timing of additional (except lunch) breaks and their duration depend on the nature of the work. The heavier and more intense it is, the sooner after the start of the shift (or after the lunch break) a regulated break (or several breaks) is introduced. The duration of pauses varies and is directly dependent on the severity and intensity of the work (Fig. 3.2).

It should be noted that with a decrease in the density of working hours and the presence of downtime, the onset of fatigue does not delay, but vice versa. Therefore, the best mode of work and rest is considered to be the establishment of a lunch break in the middle of the day with an optimal duration of about 1 hour, and in the first and second halves of the working day - additional breaks at the expense of working time.

Employees are guaranteed annual leave with retention of position and average earnings of at least 28 calendar days.

Consequences of accidents at ROO

The main damaging factors of radiation accidents are:

exposure to external radiation (gamma and x-rays; beta and gamma radiation; gamma - neutron radiation

internal exposure from radionuclides entering the human body (alpha and beta radiation);

combined radiation exposure due to both external radiation sources and internal exposure;

combined effects of both radiation and non-radiation factors (mechanical injury, thermal injury, chemical burn, intoxication, etc.).

After a radioactive trace accident, the main source of radiation hazard is external exposure. Inhalation of radionuclides into the body is practically excluded with the correct and timely use of respiratory protection.

Internal exposure develops as a result of radionuclides entering the body with food and water. In the first days after the accident, the most dangerous are radioactive isotopes of iodine, which accumulate in the thyroid gland. The highest concentration of iodine isotopes is found in milk, which is especially dangerous for children.

13. Protective structure– this is an engineering structure designed to shelter people, equipment and property from dangers arising from accidents and disasters at potentially hazardous facilities (PHO) or hazardous natural phenomena in the areas where these facilities are located, as well as from the effects of modern weapons of destruction (MW). Such structures include shelters and anti-radiation shelters (PRU). In addition, simple shelters can be used to protect people.

Shelters provide protection for those sheltered from the effects of damaging factors of nuclear weapons and conventional weapons, bacterial (biological) agents, toxic substances, and also, if necessary, from catastrophic flooding, emergency chemically hazardous substances, radioactive products during the destruction of nuclear power plants, high temperatures and combustion products in a fire . Shelters are classified according to a number of properties and characteristics.

Anti-radiation shelters are designed to protect people from external ionizing radiation during radioactive contamination (contamination) of the area and direct exposure of radioactive dust to the respiratory system on skin and clothing, as well as from light radiation from a nuclear explosion. In addition, with appropriate structural strength, PRUs can partially protect people from the effects of shock and blast waves, debris from collapsing buildings, as well as from direct contact with drops of toxic substances and aerosols of bacterial agents on the skin and clothing.

The simplest shelters- these are structures that do not require special construction, which provide partial protection for those sheltered from an air shock wave, light radiation from a nuclear explosion and flying debris of destroyed buildings, reduce the impact of ionizing radiation in radioactively contaminated areas, and in some cases protect from bad weather and other adverse conditions. Open cracks and trenches come off within the first 12 hours. In the next 12 hours they are overlapped, and by the end of the second day they are brought up to the requirements for anti-radiation shelters.

14. Civil defense shelter- a special structure designed to protect people from weapons of mass destruction.

Shelters provide protection from:

shock wave of a nuclear explosion (at a certain distance from the explosion site);

light radiation;

penetrating radiation;

radiation of precipitation on the trail of a radioactive cloud;

toxic substances;

bacterial (biological) agents

Shelters are classified by:

protective properties;

capacity;

location (built-in and free-standing);

provision of filtering and ventilation equipment (with industrial-made equipment; with equipment made from scrap materials);

construction time (built in advance; prefabricated);

purpose (to protect the population; to house controls, etc.

Shelters are equipped in the recessed part of buildings (built-in) or built separately (free-standing shelter). Subways, mine workings, garages and other buried structures are also adapted for shelters.

Shelters have at least two entrances (exits), one of which is equipped as an emergency one; in shelters equipped in subways and underground mines, as a rule, there is also an emergency exit. Entrances are equipped with security-hermetic doors.

Each shelter consists of a room for those being sheltered, airlock chambers (vestibules), a filter and ventilation chamber, a sanitary unit and other premises.

The outside air entering the shelter is cleaned of radioactive, toxic substances and bacterial agents, as well as other harmful combustion products in filter ventilation units with electric or manual drive.

Filter ventilation units can operate in two modes: pure ventilation (the air is cleaned only of dust in dust filters) and filter ventilation (the air is cleaned of radioactive, toxic substances, and bacterial agents in absorbent filters).

The shelters are equipped with water supply, sewerage, heating and lighting systems; Radio and telephone are installed. In the main room there are benches for sitting and bunks for lying. Each shelter is provided with a set of means for conducting reconnaissance in contaminated areas, appropriate equipment (including for emergency work) and emergency lighting.

15. Anti-radiation shelters (PRU) - This is a protective structure that provides protection for those being sheltered from light radiation, the effects of a low-power shock wave (up to 0.2 kg/cm2) and significantly weakens the effects of penetrating radiation.

Anti-radiation shelters are built mainly in small cities, towns and rural areas. They are built in close proximity to the places of residence of people to be sheltered.

Anti-radiation shelters can be the basements of houses, the first floors of brick and reinforced concrete buildings and free-standing buried structures: cellars, vegetable stores, warehouses, brick and reinforced concrete silos. If there is a lack of existing structures that can be adapted for anti-radiation shelters, special construction is organized using local building materials
Anti-radiation shelters must have one or more rooms for those being sheltered, a sanitary facility and other rooms depending on their capacity. The standard area for the main premises of the PRU is taken to be 0.4–0.5 m2, depending on the number of bunk tiers. In specially built PRUs, the height of the premises must be at least 1.9 m, the volume of the main premises - 1.5 m 3 per person. When placing the PRU in basements, cellars, undergrounds with a room height of 1.7–1.9 m, the area norm increases to 0.6 m2 per person. The area of ​​sanitary posts and first aid stations is determined according to the same standards as for shelters.
In accordance with the requirements for the operation of shelters, they are provided with water supply, sewerage, ventilation, heating and lighting

Chemical reconnaissance devices

Detection and determination of the degree of contamination of air, terrain, structures, equipment, transport, personal protective equipment, clothing, food, water, fodder and other objects by poisonous and highly toxic substances is carried out using chemical reconnaissance devices or by taking samples and subsequently analyzing them in chemical laboratories.

The principle of detecting and determining OM by chemical reconnaissance devices is based on the change in color of indicators when they interact with OM. Depending on which indicator was taken and how it changed color, the type of agent is determined, and comparison of the intensity of the resulting color with a color standard allows one to judge the approximate concentration of agent in the air or the density of infection. Chemical reconnaissance devices include: a military chemical reconnaissance device (VPCR), a chemical reconnaissance device (PCR), a semi-automatic chemical reconnaissance device (PPCR), an automatic gas detector.

Chemical reconnaissance devices are basically no different from each other. To understand the principles and procedure for working with chemical reconnaissance devices, let’s consider the main chemical reconnaissance device, namely the military chemical reconnaissance device (VPCR).

18. Sanitizing people.

Disinfection- performing work on decontamination, degassing and disinfection of contaminated surfaces.

Decontamination is carried out when contaminated with radioactive substances and is aimed at removing them from contaminated objects to acceptable standards of contamination.

Degassing consists of disinfecting toxic substances and removing them from contaminated surfaces.

Disinfection refers to the destruction of pathogenic microbes and the destruction of toxins.

If the enemy uses carriers of infectious diseases, disinsection is organized - the destruction of infected insects, ticks, or deratization is carried out - the destruction of rodents.

Sanitizing people- this is the removal of radioactive and toxic substances, as well as bacteriological agents from human skin and mucous membranes. When sanitizing people, decontamination, degassing and disinfection of clothing, shoes and personal protective equipment are carried out.

Theoretical foundations and practical functions of BZh.

Main functions of the BZD- ensure safety of work and human life, protection of the natural environment through:

Description of living space;

Formation of safety requirements for sources of negative factors

Organization of monitoring of the state of the habitat and inspection control of sources of negative impact;

Development and use of bioprotection means;

Implementation of measures to prevent and eliminate the consequences of emergencies;

Training the population in the basics of life safety, training specialists at all levels and forms of activity.

The practical significance of this discipline comes from the goals and objectives that the science of BJD implements. the practical significance of BZD is the protection of life and health of people in emergency situations

5. Electrical safety. Effect of electric current on the body
Electrical safety is a system of organizational and technical measures and means that ensure the protection of people from the harmful and dangerous effects of electric current. arc, electromagnetic field and static electricity

Effect on the body:
1.stopping the heart or breathing when an electric current passes through the body
2.burn
3.mechanical injury due to muscle contraction under the influence of current
4. electric arc blinding

Electric current, passing through the human body, has biological, electrolytic, thermal and mechanical effects.

The biological effect of current is manifested in irritation and excitation of tissues and organs. As a result, skeletal muscle spasms are observed, which can lead to respiratory arrest, avulsion fractures and dislocations of the limbs, and spasm of the vocal cords.

The electrolytic effect of current manifests itself in the electrolysis (decomposition) of liquids, including blood, and also significantly changes the functional state of cells.

The thermal effect of electric current leads to burns of the skin, as well as death of subcutaneous tissues, including charring. The mechanical effect of the current manifests itself in tissue separation and even separation of body parts.

There are two main types of damage to the body: electrical injuries and electrical shocks. Often both types of lesions accompany each other. However, they are different and should be considered separately.

6. Factors influencing the danger and initial electric shock. Protective measures against electrical damage. electric shock

Email human body resistance

The strength of the current flowing through the body

Current exposure time

Current Flow Path

Frequency and type of current

Individual characteristics of the human body

Events

Correct selection of personnel, training to work with email. equipment, Special training el. security. Appointment of a person responsible for email. farming. Control of electrical wiring and electrical installations. equipment.

Technical measures: use of electrical protection devices. installations and networks from overloads, as well as short circuit outflows, protecting people and animals from contact through the use of solid fences of high-voltage equipment and placing it in separate buildings. Transition protection. Metal stresses. Housings el. installations, protection device Grounding.

7. Electric shocks. Electrical injury. Step voltage
Electrical injuries– these are clearly expressed local violations of the integrity of body tissues caused by exposure to electric current or electric arc. Usually these are superficial injuries, that is, damage to the skin and sometimes other soft tissues, as well as ligaments and bones.

The danger of electrical injuries and the difficulty of their treatment are determined by the nature and extent of tissue damage, as well as the body's response to this damage. Typically, injuries heal and the victim's ability to work is restored fully or partially.

Sometimes (usually with severe burns) a person dies. In such cases, the direct cause of death is not the electric current, but local damage to the body caused by the current.

Electric shock- this is the excitation of living tissues by an electric current passing through the body, accompanied by involuntary convulsive muscle contractions. Depending on the outcome of the negative impact of current on the body, electric shocks can be divided into the following four degrees:
I - convulsive muscle contraction without loss of consciousness;
II - convulsive muscle contraction with loss of consciousness, but with preserved breathing and heart function;
III - loss of consciousness and disturbance of cardiac activity or breathing (or both);
IV - clinical death, that is, lack of breathing and blood circulation.
Step voltage- occurs when exposed to electricity. current, when the feet are positioned at a point in the field, current spreading from the ground electrode or a wire that has fallen to the ground

8. Providing first aid to a victim of an electrical accident. current

It is necessary to free the victim, using all means of protection, so as not to become energized yourself.

You can also pull dry clothes, while avoiding touching metal parts and open areas of the victim’s body; You need to act with one hand, holding the other behind your back. It is safest for the person providing assistance to use dielectric gloves and rubber mats when freeing the victim. After releasing the victim from the electric current, it is necessary to assess the victim’s condition in order to provide appropriate first aid.

If the victim is conscious, breathing and pulse are stable, then it is necessary to lay him on a mat; unbutton clothes; create an influx of fresh air; create complete peace by observing your breathing and pulse. Under no circumstances should the victim be allowed to move, as the condition may worsen. Only a doctor can decide what to do next. If the victim breathes very rarely and convulsively, but his pulse is palpable, it is necessary to immediately begin artificial respiration.

If the victim has no consciousness, breathing, pulse, or dilated pupils, then we can assume that he is in a state of clinical death. In this case, it is necessary to urgently begin to revive the body using artificial respiration using the mouth-to-mouth method and external cardiac massage. If within just 5-6 minutes after the cessation of cardiac activity you do not begin to revive the victim’s body, then without air oxygen the brain cells die and death turns from clinical to biological; the process will become irreversible. Therefore, the five-minute time limit is the deciding factor for revival.

With the help of indirect cardiac massage in combination with artificial respiration, anyone can bring the victim back to life or time will be gained until the resuscitation team arrives

1. Theoretical foundations and practical functions of BJD

The concept of “life safety” is very multifaceted and also means the science of safe human interaction with the technosphere, and in a broader sense, with the environment. In other words, traditionally in this scientific direction, only local the life activity system as forming a kind of security foundation for a higher level system, the so-called global life activity system. Accordingly, it is possible to identify a space of local life safety, which forms part of a more general space of global life safety.

In addition, speaking about local life safety, it should be taken into account that recently there has also been a tendency to generalize the consideration of life safety as a complex system property, requiring the use of a systematic approach to the problem of security of political, business, information and other types of activities that are not so much technogenic, how much social character.

Risk is the ratio of certain realized hazards (injury, occupational disease, death at work) to the possible number for a certain period of time.

To analyze the state of labor protection in production, individual, social and technical risks can be distinguished.

Individual risk characterizes the danger of a certain type for an individual. Social risk (group) is the risk of danger for a certain group of people (including those united by profession).

Technical risk expresses the probability of accidents during the operation of machinery and equipment, the implementation of technological processes, and the operation of industrial buildings.

Thus, reducing the number of negative production factors, i.e. by reducing the base of the pyramid, the number of accidents can be proportionally reduced. Consequently, the main strategy in reducing production risk appears to be a scrupulous identification of negative factors in the labor production process and the systematic elimination of these factors at all stages of the labor process and at all stages of the life cycle of elements of the production environment. First of all, the factors that cause accidents at work are determined and, if possible, completely eliminated.

Life safety problems must be solved on a scientific basis.

Science is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality.

In the near future, humanity must learn to predict negative impacts and ensure the safety of decisions made at the stage of their development, and to protect against existing negative factors, create and actively use protective equipment and measures, limiting in every possible way the areas of action and levels of negative factors.

The implementation of goals and objectives in the “human life safety” system is a priority and should be developed on a scientific basis.

The science of life safety explores the world of hazards operating in the human environment, developing systems and methods for protecting people from dangers. In the modern understanding, life safety studies the dangers of the industrial, domestic and urban environment both in the conditions of everyday life and in the event of emergency situations of man-made and natural origin. The implementation of life safety goals and objectives includes the following main stages of scientific activity:

Identification and description of zones affected by dangers of the technosphere and its individual elements (enterprises, machines, devices, etc.);

Development and implementation of the most effective systems and methods of protection against hazards;

Formation of systems for monitoring hazards and managing the safety state of the technosphere;

Development and implementation of measures to eliminate the consequences of fire
hazard phenomena;

Organization of training of the population in the basics of safety and security
training of life safety specialists.

The main task of life safety science is the preventive analysis of the sources and causes of hazards, forecasting and assessing their impact in space and time.

A modern theoretical basis for BJD should contain, at a minimum:

Methods for analyzing hazards generated by elements of the technosphere;

Fundamentals of a comprehensive description of negative factors in space and time, taking into account the possibility of their combined impact on humans in the technosphere;

Basics of forming initial environmental indicators for
newly created or recommended elements of the technosphere, taking into account its state;

Fundamentals of managing technosphere safety indicators
basis for monitoring hazards and applying the most effective
measures and means of protection;

Fundamentals of the formation of safety requirements for operators of technical systems and the population of the technosphere.

When determining the main practical functions of BZD, it is necessary to take into account the historical sequence of occurrence of negative impacts, the formation of zones of their action and protective measures. For quite a long time, the negative factors of the technosphere had a major impact on people only in the sphere of production, forcing him to develop safety measures. The need for more complete human protection in production areas has led to occupational safety and health. Today, the negative influence of the technosphere has expanded to the limits when people in urban space and housing, the biosphere adjacent to industrial zones, have also become objects of protection.

In almost all cases of hazards, the sources of impact are elements of the technosphere with their emissions, discharges, solid waste, energy fields and radiation. The identity of the sources of impact in all zones of the technosphere inevitably requires the formation of common approaches and solutions in such areas of protective activities as labor safety, life safety and environmental protection. All this is achieved by implementing the basic functions of the BZD. These include:

Description of the living space by its zoning according to the values ​​of negative factors based on an examination of the sources of negative impacts, their relative location and mode of action, as well as taking into account the climatic, geographical and other characteristics of the region or area of ​​activity;

Formation of safety and environmental requirements for
sources of negative factors - assignment of maximum permissible emissions (MPE), discharges (MPD), energy impacts (MPE), acceptable risk, etc.;

Organization of monitoring of the state of the habitat and inspection control of sources of negative impacts;

Development and use of eco-bioprotection products;

Implementation of measures to eliminate the consequences of accidents and other emergencies;

Training the population in the basics of BJD and training specialists

all levels and forms of activity to implement safety and environmental requirements.

Not all functions of BZD are now equally developed and put into practice. There are certain developments in the field of creation and application of environmental and bioprotection means, in the formation of safety and environmental requirements for the most significant sources of negative impacts, in organizing monitoring of the state of the living environment in industrial and urban environments. At the same time, only recently have the foundations for the examination of sources of negative impacts, the foundations for preventive analysis of negative impacts and their monitoring in the technosphere emerged and are being formed.

The main directions of practical activity in the field of safety are the prevention of causes and the prevention of conditions for the occurrence of dangerous situations.

Analysis of real situations, events and factors today allows us to formulate a number of axioms of science about life safety in the technosphere.

So, the world of man-made dangers is completely understandable and that a person has enough means and ways to protect himself from man-made dangers. The existence of man-made hazards and their high significance in modern society are due to insufficient human attention to the problem of man-made safety, propensity to take risks and neglect the danger. This is largely due to limited human knowledge about the world of dangers and the negative consequences of their manifestation.

In principle, the impact of harmful man-made factors can be completely eliminated by humans; the impact of man-made traumatic factors is limited by acceptable risk due to the improvement of sources of hazards and the use of protective equipment; exposure to natural hazards can be limited by prevention and protection measures.

2. Occupational diseases and their spread in Russia

An occupational disease is a disease caused by exposure to harmful working conditions. The term “occupational disease” has a legislative and insurance meaning. The list of occupational diseases is approved by law. Clinical manifestations of occupational diseases often do not have specific symptoms, and only information about the working conditions of the sick person makes it possible to establish whether the identified pathology belongs to the category of occupational diseases. Only some of them are characterized by a special symptom complex, caused by peculiar radiological, functional, hematological and biochemical changes.

There is no generally accepted classification of occupational diseases. The classification based on the etiological principle has received the greatest recognition.

Based on this, five groups of occupational diseases caused by exposure have been identified:

■ chemical factors – acute and chronic intoxication, as well as their consequences, occurring with isolated or combined damage to various organs and systems;

■ dust – pneumoconiosis, metalloconiosis, pneumoconiosis of electric welders and gas cutters, grinders, emery workers, etc.;

■ physical factors – vibration sickness, diseases associated with exposure to contact ultrasound, hearing loss of the type of cochlear neuritis (noise sickness, diseases associated with exposure to electromagnetic radiation and scattered laser radiation), radiation sickness, diseases associated with changes in atmospheric pressure (decompression illness, acute hypoxia), diseases that occur under unfavorable meteorological conditions (overheating, convulsive illness, vegetative-sensitive polyneuritis);

■ overexertion - diseases of peripheral nerves and muscles, diseases of the musculoskeletal system, focal neuroses (writer's cramp, other forms of functional dyskinesias), diseases of the vocal apparatus and organ of vision (asthenopia and myopia);

Outside this etiological taxonomy are occupational allergic diseases (conjunctivitis, diseases of the upper respiratory tract, bronchial asthma, dermatitis, eczema) and oncological diseases (tumors of the skin, bladder, liver, cancer of the upper respiratory tract).

There are also acute and chronic occupational diseases. An acute occupational disease occurs after a single (during no more than one work shift) exposure to harmful occupational factors, a chronic disease occurs after repeated and prolonged exposure to harmful occupational factors. A disease in which two or more people become ill (suffered) at the same time is called a group occupational disease.

A consequence of the unsatisfactory state of conditions and labor protection at work is the occupational morbidity of workers.

At the same time, the statistics of occupational morbidity do not reflect the true situation, since the detection of occupational pathology is incomplete and occurs in the later stages of the development of the disease.

One of the bottlenecks in the field of identifying occupational diseases is the conduct of preventive medical examinations. Serious shortcomings in their organization and the low quality of medical examinations, associated primarily with the insufficient provision of diagnostic equipment in medical institutions, lead to under-identification of patients with occupational pathology. On average, in the Russian Federation in recent years, during periodic medical examinations, only 56% to 64% of occupational diseases of all identified cases have been identified.

The work on organizing preventive medical examinations in the field of small and medium-sized businesses is especially weak. Identification of occupational diseases occurs mainly when patients visit medical institutions.

Also, incomplete identification and registration of patients with occupational pathology is due to the imperfection of labor protection legislation and the lack of legal and economic sanctions for concealing occupational diseases.

The largest number of occupational diseases are registered in organizations with private ownership, while about 96% of the total number of occupational diseases (poisonings) are chronic diseases (poisonings), leading to limitations in professional suitability and ability to work.

The main reasons for the occurrence of chronic occupational diseases in 2008, as in previous years, were: imperfection of technological processes (41.8%), design defects of labor tools (29.9%), imperfection of workplaces (5.3%), imperfection sanitary installations (5.3%), lack of personal protective equipment (1.6%).

The largest share, as in previous years, falls on diseases associated with exposure to physical factors (37.7%), industrial aerosols (29.2%), physically strenuous labor (16.4%), etc.

Occupational pathology was most often recorded among workers in the following professions: heavy truck driver, longwall miner, milkman, crusher, drilling rig operator, excavator operator, machine operator, medical worker, chopper, fire retarder, smelter, drifter, press operator, repairman, miner, electric and gas welder, electrolysis worker, electrician, etc.

The sectoral structure of occupational morbidity includes the following main sectors: industrial production, agriculture, healthcare, construction, transport and communications.

Occupational morbidity in the Russian Federation directly depends on the state of working conditions in various sectors of the economy in the regions of the Russian Federation.

Changing the working conditions of workers in the most dangerous sectors of the economy in various regions of the Russian Federation in terms of the occurrence of occupational diseases and occupational poisoning will make it possible to purposefully influence the level of occupational morbidity in the country.

Reducing the level of occupational morbidity in the Russian Federation can be achieved primarily through the introduction of new equipment, new technologies, increasing the responsibility of employers for the implementation of legislative and other regulatory legal acts on labor protection, improving the material and technical base of medical institutions and improving the qualifications of their personnel , increasing the responsibility of each employee for compliance with labor safety rules and regulations.

Bibliography

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1. Theoretical foundations and practical functions of life safety The concept of “life safety” is very multifaceted and means, among other things, the science of safe human interaction with the technosphere, and in a broader sense, with the environment