Vehicles using the muscular power of animals and humans.

Many writers, scientists and philosophers spoke about the need to develop means of transportation.

F. Bacon (1561-1626)- an English philosopher and scientist, wrote: “Three things make a nation great and prosperous: fertile soil, active industry and ease of movement of people and goods.” English historian and public figure

T. Macaulay (1800-1859) believed that only those inventions that help overcome distances benefit humanity, with the exception of the alphabet and printing.

The beginning of the history of the development of the automobile can be considered the invention of the wheel, which is rightly one of the greatest technological discoveries of mankind. Without wheels, it is impossible to imagine the further development of means of transportation. After all, what makes it interesting is that, unlike tracked and stepper mechanisms, wings, and a jet engine, the wheel has no analogues in living nature. It is impossible to say exactly where and when it was invented. It is known for certain that the age of the first wheels is about four thousand years.

Humanity has constantly strived to reduce the time spent moving. Postmen in the Middle Ages used stilts. The process of taming fleet-footed animals was actively underway; horses were most often used. Until recently, there were mounted troops, which were much more effective than foot troops. Nowadays, there are mounted police units.

Previously, man himself was the source of the strength necessary to move heavy objects. Then people began to resort to the help of domestic animals, which they harnessed to a sleigh or a cart. This method of transportation is still used today.

The oldest means of transportation is the sleigh. Even now there are places on earth where this is the most common means of transport. In Russia, for the purpose of movement, both on winter and summer off-road conditions, carts similar to sleighs were used - drags. Sleighs were used not only in the north, but even in those places where snow had never fallen. It is interesting to note that at the beginning of the 20th century, during the development of the automobile industry, automobile sleighs (snowmobiles) were invented.

Images of the first carts are akin to the first wheels that appeared. The archaeological finds are about four thousand years old. Two carts, covered with bronze plates, found in an ancient tomb, are especially well preserved.

What were the first wheeled vehicles? Initially, these were carts drawn by oxen and having only one axis. Later, various chariots appeared: one-, two- and multi-seat, with an open top and a closed one, two-wheeled and four-wheeled, with simple and richer decoration. The carts of that time were characterized by structural strength, because there were almost no good roads (stone roads were built exclusively in Rome and the territories it conquered), and the invention of springs, shock absorbers and pneumatic tires was still very far away. The weak carts quickly fell apart from the shaking on the roads.

Carts became widespread as tools. Heavy, armored chariots were used as shock weapons for attacks. The problem of insufficient power was solved simply - more horses were harnessed. As practice has shown, the best option is a team of four horses, or, as it is otherwise called, a quadriga. In revolutionary Russia, during the civil war (1918-1920), carts were actively used - mobile platforms for heavy machine guns; these guns demoralized enemy troops, “sowing” fear and panic.

In ancient times, carts were not very comfortable and therefore most people preferred to travel on horseback, and sometimes even in hand-held portable cabins - sedan chairs and palanquins.

An amazing story is captured in one of the old books. During a trip to the Council of Constance (1414-1418), a traffic accident occurred with the Pope.

The image clearly shows that the cart had a typical design for that time, and was not equipped with springs. Only at the end of the 15th century did the first prototypes of carriage springs appear - strong leather belts on which the carriage body was suspended. King Charles VII of France received such a carriage as a gift in 1457 from King Vladislaus V of Hungary. Princely and royal carriages were distinguished by a special luxury of decoration.

The first hired carriages appeared in the 17th century. There were about 200 hackney carriages in London in 1652. By 1718, their number had increased to 800. In France, such carriages were called fiacres.

In the 17th year, multi-passenger public transport - stagecoaches - also appeared. In a day they covered a distance of 40-50 km, and in the 18th century - 100-150 km.

In 1662, “omnibuses” appeared on the streets of Paris - the embodiment of the idea of ​​the great scientist Blaise Pascal about organizing an entire urban transport network. Omnibuses (Latin for “cart for all”) were large carts that carried everyone for a small fee. Each passenger had his own seat, and the omnibuses stopped at any place at the request of the passenger.

The design of the omnibus underwent great changes in the 19th century. The horse-drawn omnibus was placed on rails, which made it possible to increase its capacity and speed of movement. In Russia, this type of transport was called “horse tram”; they first appeared in St. Petersburg in 1856.

A typical picture for that time - an omnibus, crowded with passengers, slowly drives along the road, attracting the attention of the rabble-rousers.

The development of technical thought, as well as human ingenuity, was aimed at finding new sources of power that would reduce human dependence on living nature.

The appearance of mechanical means of transportation was a transitional stage on the way to the automobile.

Publications in the Literature section

Encyclopedia of car-free life in Russian literature

Before the invention of automobiles and widespread rail travel, long (and not so long) distance travel in Russia was most often done in horse-drawn carriages. The encyclopedia of Russian non-motorized transport in literature was compiled by Sofya Bagdasarova.

Vladimir Sollogub wrote in his story “Seryozha”: “Here is a cart rushing - the exuberant youth of Russian roads; here the chaise waddles, like a Saratov landowner after dinner; here a wide carriage proudly stands out, like some rich tax farmer; here is the dormez, here is the carriage, and behind them a fat merchant-stagecoach, having drunk fourteen cups of tea in the post yard.”. In Russia, in fact, there were many types of horse-drawn carriages, which were also made differently in different regions. They also differed in purpose, design and status of the owner.

B - Brichka

This word is of Polish origin and denotes a light four-wheeled road vehicle, sometimes without springs. The body of the chaise could be either open or closed: leather, wicker or wood.

It was in the britzka that the main character of Nikolai Gogol’s “Dead Souls”, Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov, traveled. His chaise was “quite beautiful, with springs,” and even with amenities: the top of the body was “closed against the rain with leather curtains with two round windows, designated for viewing road views.” It was a quite decent road carriage for such an official as Chichikov, befitting his rank, even if, as they would say today, “not a representative class.”

Perhaps this is why many Russian classics described the britzka as an extremely noisy transport. Leo Tolstoy's chaise bounced, Sholokhov's chaise rattled or rattled, and Alexander Serafimovich wrote that “an intolerably sultry ringing rattle rolled behind it.” David Burliuk, dedicating poems to a certain bird with an unbearable voice, compared it to an old broken chaise.

B - Cart

Sergey Ivanov. Boyar slaves. 1909. Collection of Rostropovich and Vishnevskaya

The term was used for a winter type of transport - a covered wagon on runners. The cart is praised for its warmth, it is comfortable, you can ride lying down - “lounging in the cart under fur blankets” (Amphitheaters). It is “filled with feather beds, pillows, etc.” (Victor Shompulev). The windows could be lined with bear fur to prevent drafts, and the inside could be lined with red cloth or even velvet.

Fyodor Koni had a vaudeville show “The Carriage, or They Meet You by Your Dress, You See You Off by Your Mind” about the importance of transport for prestige.

K - Kibitka

Nikolay Sverchkov. Caught in the storm. timing belt

In Russia, a word borrowed from nomads was used to call a covered wagon. Often the top was on arches and could be folded back - reminiscent of a “grandmother’s cap” (Nikolai Teleshov). A good wagon means “with a spacious top and a double matting canopy” (Ivan Lazhechnikov) or “with a leather top and a tightly buttoned apron” (Pavel Melnikov-Pechersky).

It was in the shaking wagon that Radishchev rode: “Lying in the wagon, my thoughts were turned to the immeasurability of the world. I separated mentally from the earth, it seemed to me that the kibit blows were easier for me.”

Vyazemsky dedicated a whole poem to her, very angry: “And this casemate is movable, / And this torture is movable, / Which is called: wagon.” Pushkin is more cheerful: “Blowing up the fluffy reins, the daring carriage flies.” On the other hand, in his “Road Complaints” he laments: “How long will I walk in the world / Now in a carriage, now on horseback, / Now in a wagon, now in a carriage, / Now in a cart, now on foot?”

K - Stroller

Nikolay Sverchkov. Riding in a stroller (Alexander II with children). Yaroslavl Art Museum

In Russia, “carriages” meant many types of open spring carriages. For example, the types of urban strollers were the landau and the phaeton. In Europe, on the contrary, a specific type of fashionable carriage was called a “stroller”.

The stroller became the heroine of Gogol’s story of the same name: the owner boasts that it is light as a feather, and the springs are as if “a nanny rocked you in a cradle.” In the end, it turns out that the boast is empty. Vyazemsky dedicated a poem of the same name to her: “A light carriage rushes, / And the mind easily carries with it.” A beautiful carriage is a matter of prestige: Dolly Oblonskaya and her coachman are embarrassed by their old, patched carriage during a visit to Vronsky’s village.

Lydia (looking out the window). Wait! What kind of stroller is this? Lace! Did maman really take this for me? What a beauty, what a luxury! Ay! I'll faint. This is not a stroller, this is a dream. You can choke from the happiness of sitting in this stroller. What's wrong with me?

Alexander Ostrovsky. "Mad Money"

It all ends with technical progress: “An elegant stroller, in an electric beater, / Elastically rustled along the highway sand” (Igor Severyanin).

L - Lando

The carriage, named after the German city, was a four-seater with a lift-up top that turned it into a carriage at will. Zhukovsky in “A Trip to Maneuvers” tells how the roof somehow refused to open: “There, here, the landau is stubborn; / He overruled all the ladies, / Forced them to move / Without ceremony to another, / And he himself went empty.”

A beautiful foreign word denoted a fashionable form of transport, a must for a person from society. The hero of Mamin-Sibiryak needs a landau in order to “show them all that I can drive like the rest of them.”

From Grigorovich we read: “How many expenses, my God, how many expenses! We had to hire new horses and exchange our carriage for a landau; people of a certain position are embarrassed to show themselves to music in the evenings; that’s how it is in Peterhof” (“City and Village”).

S - Sani

Ivan Pelevin. Children in a sleigh. 1870. Nizhny Tagil Museum of Fine Arts, Nizhny Tagil, Sverdlovsk region

Another means of transportation that has been written into poetry for a long time. “And having split the shafts, the sleigh is waiting / When they will be harnessed” (Zhukovsky); “Towards the city of Ryazan / Three sleighs are rolling, / The sleighs are collapsing / The arcs are painted” (Mei), etc. Unlike the sleighs, not only peasants can be seen in the sleighs. The nobles own their own sleighs and ride in them, lying down comfortably and wrapped in warm blankets and blankets.

In the nineteenth century, the population of large cities increased at a very rapid pace, which led to the need for the development of public transport suitable for the mass transport of passengers. Urban horse-drawn railways, called “horse-horse” in Russia, became such a means of transportation in the New and Old Worlds.

The ancient horse-drawn horse was a multi-seat lightweight carriage driven along a rail track by a horse. On the roof, and eventually on the front platform of the horse-drawn horse, sat the carriage driver. Since the influx of passengers was constantly increasing, it was necessary to find ways to increase the number of horse-drawn seats. At the time when serfdom was abolished in Russia, double-decker trailers had already appeared in England. Over time, they spread throughout Russian cities. You could ride on the upper open area for a small fee, so children and the poor most often rode there.

Over time, horse trams turned into real ones, as new trams with mechanical engines appeared. At that time, there already existed a large number of used steam plants, which successfully powered railways, sea and river vessels. It was only necessary to reduce their piston engines and steam boilers to the size of a horse-drawn horse. It turned out that introducing steam trams into use was not so easy - the locomotive made a lot of noise when moving, and dust and fumes fell from the chimney.

The search for new ways to improve city trams continued. One of the variations of the ancient tram was a car built in 1876 by the French engineer Mekarsky. His tram was powered by an expansion piston machine, in which a supply of air was stored under a pressure of 30 atmospheres in several cylinders. This amount of air was enough for more than ten kilometers of movement. Although the tram proposed by the French scientist was absolutely environmentally friendly, no one wanted to build numerous compressor stations in residential areas and waste time recharging with air.

Finally, in 1881, an old tram built by Siemens appeared in Berlin. It was equipped with a “newfangled” electric motor. An important innovation in the history of tram development was the use of an electric motor, a wheel pair in the form of a monoblock trolley and a gearbox. Such a tram system was developed by the inventor Sprague. Almost immediately it spread to many countries around the world and became the prototype of modern trams.

Although Sprague's system was an almost ideal solution, the search for ways to create a tram without an electrical contact system, which required a huge investment of capital, continued. A solution was found through the creation of autonomous propulsion systems. So, on the lines of Moscow and St. Petersburg in 1899, experimental cars appeared that used electricity, literally carried with them. This project also did not last long, because the batteries for trams were incredibly large and heavy.

Land vehicles were not fast and were very expensive.

Common land vehicles were pack donkeys and camels. For heavier loads, oxcarts were used. The average speed of a donkey or camel is 3 mph (4.45 km/h), and that of an ox is about 2 mph (2.96 km/h). We have reached the exact data of Diocletian's tariff for travel expenses: transporting cargo on a donkey was estimated at 4 denarii. A camel capable of carrying 600 pounds (192 kg) of cargo cost 8 denarii, and a cart with a load of 1,200 pounds (394) kg cost 20 denarii. From these rates it can be concluded that the price of wheat doubled if it was transported 300 miles (445 km) by cart or 375 miles (570 km) by camel. Costs for goods transported by sea were significantly lower, especially for goods from distant countries. Delivery of one modius 9 liters of goods from Alexandria to Rome, the distance between which is about 1250 miles (1850 km), cost 16 denarii, from Syria to Lusitania - 26 denarii. Thus, it was much cheaper to transport wheat from one end of the empire to the other by sea than to transport it 75 miles (111 km) by wagon. (pp. 450-451)

Under such circumstances, inter-island water transport became important. That is why ports such as Arles, Marseille, Ephesus and Alexandria, located at the mouths of rivers or near river systems, played a predominant role. The main argument in favor of Egypt as the main supplier of grain was the fact that there were virtually no settlements in Egypt that were more than 10 miles (14.8 km) from the Nile or any other navigation channel. In Africa we are talking about the province of Africa; most of the estates where grain was grown were located within easy reach of the sea or the navigable Bagrada River. The placement of borders along the Rhine and Danube was aimed at creating a powerful rear. In the 4th century, the Rhine army received food mainly by sea from Britain; in the 6th century, the army of the Lower Danube was supplied through the coastal provinces of Faria, Cyprus and the Aegean islands. The Upper Danube armies were a big problem, as they created additional stress on the transportation system.

As a rough estimate, it can be said that grain was delivered by cart free of charge over a distance of up to 50 miles (74 km). When famine broke out in Lentiochia, Julian was forced to resort to the services of the currsus publicus to transport grain from Hieropolis, 100 miles (148) km away, and from Chalcis, a little over 50 miles away. In Cappadocia Caesarea, as Gregory of Nazianzus narrates, famine assumed catastrophic proportions. The grain trade did not pay back the costs, although in large cities the usual price of grain was much higher. In Antiochinus, for one modius (9 liters), Julian set a fee of 15 solidi, against the average price of 30 solidi. Consequently, the government subsidized grain supplies to major cities. (pp. 451-452)

Transportation of goods by sea ships required significantly lower costs, although this type of transport had its drawbacks. The shipping season was limited to six months a year - navicularii did not set sail between 10 October and 31 March. These dates, noted in the code, indicate that in winter the risk of sea travel from Italy to Africa was too great even for imperial couriers. The ancient Romans did not know how to properly use the power of the wind; their ships for a long time could delay not only calms and storms, but also winds blowing towards them. Under favorable circumstances, travel could take place very quickly: from Narbonne to Carthage in 5 days, from Ascalon to Thessalonica in 12-13 days, and the same amount in the opposite direction. The voyage from Constantinople to Gaza took 10 days, but it took 20 days to reach Constantinople from Gaza. It was possible to travel from Alexandria to Marseille in 30 days. But sometimes ships were forced to stand idle due to bad weather. page 452

Most of the ships were small-sized and not entirely suitable for sea voyages. The largest ship noted in the sources could carry 50,000 modius (about 330 tons of cargo) on board (should be 450 cubic meters, i.e. the author assumes a cargo density of about 735 kg/cubic m), another ship with a carrying capacity of 350,000 modius (3120 cubic meters) was also considered exceptional. The average carrying capacity of ships specializing in the transportation of grain was 10,000 - 20,000 modius (60-130 tons) (90-180 cubic meters). Small vessels designed for 2000 modius of cargo (15 tons) (18 cubic meters) were also common. They could be chartered by the government to transport grain. Shipwrecks occurred quite often, even in summer. Many decrees and laws prescribed that the losses incurred in this case should be compensated equally by all navicularii. Cargoes were also often damaged by sea water. In this state of affairs, there was nothing left to do but throw them overboard and subsequently cover the losses, for which, again, all shipowners were responsible. pp. 452-453

(Since modius is a measure of volume, and the measurement of the carrying capacity of ships in modius is due to the transportation of grain, hereinafter for reference I give a conversion to liters or cubic meters - KV)

With the help of navicularii, the government not only transported wheat by sea from Africa to Rome and from Egypt to Constantinople, but also supplied the army. As mentioned earlier, individual wealthy landowners, in exchange for a reduction in land taxes, exemption from the duties of curiae and other various privileges, were engaged in the construction of ships and maintaining them in working order. They were paid freight that was half the commercial value of the cargo, and were expected to cover the tax shortfall on their lands. We know much less about inland water transport. It is known that on the Tiber, to transport grain from Ostia to Rome and collect fuel for the Roman baths, the state supervised the workshops of baroque workers. There was also a state boat service on the Po River, operating trips from Pavia to Ravenna. On the Nile there was a mixed service of government municipal and private courts, organized by the state. (page 453)

For the transport of goods by land, a carefully developed and comprehensive imperial postal service (cursus publicus) operated under the direction of the state. It consisted of the cursus velox, equipped with riding and pack horses, light carts drawn by three mules and four-wheeled carts with 8-10 mules, and the cursus claburalis, which had at its disposal a cart with two pairs of oxen for heavy loads. The Cursus velox provided transport facilities mainly for imperial couriers and other officials who traveled on public business, and also transported light and valuable goods such as gold, silver, fine textiles and, for example, bibles delivered by Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea , and intended for the churches of Constantinople. Cursus clabularis dealt with the transportation of food, clothing, weapons, timber, materials and property of troops stationed in another area. (pp. 453-454)

The postal service included large and small mansiones and mutationes, located at intervals of 10-12 miles (14.8-17.8 km) along the main roads. Along the route from Bordeaux through Northern Italy to Constantinople, there were 208 such points, and from Chalcedon to Jerusalem - 1-2. The postal service also established communications with remote regions, such as Sardinia. Each point contained the required number of animals - by order of Prokopnya, there should have been up to 40 horses in the stables - but this probably only applied to the main roads - carts and carts, veterinarians, wheelwrights and grooms (the latter numbered one per every three horses). All these employees were hereditary state slaves who were supplied with food and clothing. The buildings were supported by taxes levied by provincial rulers. Horses for the stables were obtained through a tax in kind (the average lifespan of animals was 4 years, so a quarter of the total was replaced annually with new ones). In exceptional cases, the horses of neighboring landowners were temporarily requisitioned. Livestock feed was supplied as a tax paid in kind, which was levied on local residents. Each station, and sometimes several stations, was headed by a manager (manceps), who was a decournon or retired official. He held this position for five years. The curiosi, one or two in each province, were recruited from among the imperial couriers (agentes in rebus). They ensured that vehicles were not used for unauthorized purposes by private individuals. The right to postal services was confirmed by an appropriate certificate (evectiones) - for fast mail, tractoriae - for mail that was delivered on carts. These certificates were signed by praetorian prefects and senior department officials, and in limited quantities, reluctantly, were distributed to other officials, even to the governors of the provinces, who had only two certificates: one for communication with the central authorities, the other for local purposes. Similar certificates, but empty ones, were issued to private individuals, especially bishops attending council meetings, and senators, since their agents purchased horses and wild animals for public games. The postal service, at least in some areas, was severely overburdened. Numerous instructions have come down to us regarding the maximum number of horses, wagons and carts that could be provided by post offices on any day, as well as the maximum load (30 pounds for a rider, 200 pounds for a gig, 1,000 lb (321 kg) for four-wheeled cart, 1,500 lb (471 kg) for ox cart). The service was extremely expensive, and thrifty emperors reduced the number of post offices. Julian abolished fast mail in Sardinia, Leo - wagon mail throughout the eastern provinces and resorted to the help of private carriers. John of Cappadocia abolished both services in large regions such as Asia. According to Procopius and John Leeds, the landowners of this diocese, who paid the bulk of taxes in fodder, after such a measure began to go bankrupt, since they were deprived of the opportunity to sell their harvest. This makes it clear that barley was typically used as feed for postal horses. (pp. 454-455)

(More about maritime transport)

Wealthy people who owned ships chartered them to entrepreneurs (exercitores), who in turn hired skippers (magistri navis). The owner of the ship received a fixed fee for freight, and entrepreneurs took on the risk and, if successful, received a profit. The owner could find skippers on his own, placing the profit and risk on himself. But very often skippers also had their own ships. In this case, they were quite wealthy, since a ship with a carrying capacity of 10,000 modii (90 cubic meters) was valued at approximately 500 solidi. Most skippers owned vessels of smaller capacity (no more than 2000 modii (18 cubic meters)). Usually, ship captains were also involved in the transportation of passengers, who paid for their passage and were provided with food. Merchants and their agents also paid freight fees for their ships. Skippers typically carried their own cargoes, obtaining the money to buy them, at least in part, through loans that were issued at high interest rates. But the person providing the loan lost his money if the cargo did not reach its destination. Justinian prohibited this practice, decreeing that money in all cases should be issued only at 12%. As a result, some unlucky captains ended up in prison for debt after their ships sank.

A.H.M. Jones "The Death of the Ancient World"

Wheeled vehicles already existed in prehistoric times; they are mentioned in the most ancient sources as well-known objects. Thus, in one of the most ancient verses of the Vedas, a comparison is used: “just as a wheel rolls behind a horse, so both worlds follow you.”
In Asia, carts have been used for a long time, along with riding and pack animals. The Greeks in Homer's time used chariots. Details of the design of ancient carts remain unknown; only the external shape of two-wheeled war chariots is well depicted in many surviving bas-reliefs and other images.

UNGEWITTER, HUGO (1869-c.1944)
A Noblewoman Alighting her Carriage, signed and dated 1906.

There is no doubt, in view of many places of ancient authors, that wheeled carts have long been used to transport goods. Thus, Homer tells that Nausicaä asked her father for a cart to take her and her friends to the seashore to wash their clothes. Carts of this kind came with two and four wheels: Pliny attributes their invention to the Phrygians. The wheels of such a “plaustrum” were firmly mounted on axles, which rotated with them, like our railway cars, in bearings fixedly attached to the body. Such carts, very clumsy, still exist on the island of Formosa.

TSERETELLI, ZURAB (B. 1934).

The ancient Persians had a properly organized postal race; royal messengers quickly carried orders in other ancient states, but more details are known about the properly organized transportation of passengers on horseback only from the time of the Romans. This type of carriage was maintained by private people (crew; “cisium”) and was two-wheeled, with a drawbar, like a convertible, but without springs, with a seat suspended by straps. They climbed into it from the side of the horses, and not from the back, as in chariots; images of cysium are already found on Etruscan vases. They traveled in such carriages very quickly: according to Suetonius, the emperor traveled in the light “meritoria vehicula” for distances of up to 150 centuries. per day.

V. Serov. Odysseus and Nausicaa

We have much more information about the ceremonial carriages of the Romans. Among the ancients, in general, the use of ceremonial chariots was the privilege of high-ranking officials and priests; Images of gods were also carried in special chariots during processions. Private individuals arrogated to themselves this right only in times of decline of morals, and under the empire they decorated their carriages with all possible luxury. The most ancient type is "arcera", it is mentioned in the laws of the twelve tables; it was a four-wheeled open cart; for women it was made on two wheels. Equally ancient are the stretchers, which were later given such a luxurious design that Caesar considered it necessary to issue a law limiting this luxury.

Engraving of a stagecoach in the black and red colors of the Post Office in the vicinity of Newmarket, Suffolk in 1827. A guard is visible from behind.

Somewhat later, the carpentum was invented, a two-wheeled carriage with a semi-cylindrical lid, and the carruca, the ancestor of modern carriages, a four-wheeled carriage with a covered body raised above the ride on four posts; in the back there was a seat for two persons, and the driver sat in front, below the gentlemen, or walked next to him. From the Gauls the Romans borrowed a tarataika with a body woven from willow - "sirpea", and from the inhabitants of the northern coast of Europe - a chariot "essedum", which was entered from the front; it served for both peaceful and military purposes.

Salvador Dali - The Phantom Carriage

During the era of migration of peoples and at the beginning of the Middle Ages, the use of a carriage was considered a sign of effeminacy; travel was made on horseback, and clergy and women rode donkeys. Chroniclers of this era only very rarely mention crews. Thus, Egingard narrates that the Merovingian king Chilperic rode everywhere in a Roman carpentum drawn by oxen; English Bishop St. Erkenwald in the 7th century. traveled and preached in a wheeled cart, as he was old and weak. Only after the Crusades did the fashion for carriages begin to revive, but they were allowed only for special occasions, for high-ranking officials, and ordinary people were prohibited from using them.

"The Arrival of the Mail Coach" by Boilly Louis-Leopold

A cart is the most general collective name for various vehicles driven by the muscular power of animals, regardless of the design features, area and purpose of use.

According to the area of ​​application, carts are divided into passenger and cargo (previously there were also military carts), according to the number of wheels - into two-wheeled (single-axle) and four-wheeled (two-axle), and also without wheels - on runners.

Willem de Zwart (1862-1931) - Carriages Waiting (Unknown Year)

The carrying capacity of the cart can reach up to 750 kg (for single-axle ones) and up to two tons (for two-axle ones).

Modern carts are often equipped with pneumatic tires, and sometimes also with pneumatic or hydraulic brakes.

PASSENGER CARRIAGES.

Crew types.

A carriage is a closed passenger carriage with springs. Initially, the body was suspended on belts, then springs began to be used for suspension (from the beginning of the 18th century), and from the beginning of the 19th century, springs began to be used. They were most often used for personal use, although from the late Middle Ages in Europe they began to be used also as public transport. An example is the stagecoach, omnibus and charabanc. The most common type of stagecoach can be considered a mail coach.

The word “carriage” came to Russia along with German carriages, when, from the middle of the 17th century, they began to be imported en masse by German merchants and became increasingly popular among the Moscow nobility. It is most likely that the word was used earlier along with other words common at that time (for example, “cracker”), and the word was also used in Ukrainian, Old Church Slavonic and Polish.

(Borrowed in the middle of the 17th century from the Polish language, where kareta< итал. caretta, суф. производного от carro «воз» (из лат. carrus «повозка на четырех колесах»)). Переход с коня (для мужчин) и колымаги (для женщин) на карету для обоих полов символизировал допетровскую европеизацию русского дворянства.

Dormez is a large carriage for long trips with sleeping places.
DORMEZ (translated from French as “sleeping”) was a spacious carriage with sleeping places, intended for long trips. L.N. had such a carriage, inherited from his parents. Tolstoy, as his eldest son recalled, was pulled by six horses. The road carriages had VAZHI, or VASHI, at the top - boxes for luggage, and at the back there was a HUMP, which also served to place luggage.

Pannemaker Adolf. “Dust rose from under the dormez and hid the baby”: Il. to the poem by T.G. Shevchenko “Kobzar” (translation by N.V. Gerbel). Engraving from fig. N.N. Karazin. 19th century

A stagecoach is a large, multi-seat passenger or mail carriage, widely used in the 19th century.

Military carts* - assigned to field troops for transporting military supplies, spare items and tools necessary to maintain equipment in good condition on the march and in battle, provisions, fodder, office supplies, cash treasury, sick and wounded.
In general terms, they consist of a course on which the body or box of the cart is mounted; the passage is formed from a main frame made up of several longitudinal beds connected to each other by transverse pillows; axles with wheels are attached to the latter.
Military carts* for transporting essential items travel along with the troops, forming a convoy of the 1st category; this includes: 1) charging boxes, single-horse shell and paired cartridge gigs (ammunition supplies), 2) military tool carts* (travelling forge, tools for horseshoes), 3) pharmacy gig; 4) hospital line and 5) officer's gig.

Winter cart

This magnificent carriage-shaped carriage on long runners was made by master Jean Michel in Moscow in 1732. It was intended for traveling long distances in winter. It was on it that in February 1742, the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth, hurried to Moscow from St. Petersburg for her coronation. The luxurious cart was decorated with gilded carvings and sculptural details, the roof was topped with balusters, and the walls were decorated with paintings of double-headed eagles and other attributes of state power. The comfortable and beautiful cart was made with truly royal luxury. It still impresses with its splendor of decoration and elegance of forms.
Height - 185 mm, length - 450 mm.

Summer “funny” carriage

A miniature summer carriage made in Moscow in 1690-1692, with a delicate gold pattern on a soft blue background, looks like an elegant toy. “Poteshnaya” was the name given to carriages that were intended for entertainment. According to the “Inventory of the Tsar’s Stable Treasury,” the carriage belonged to two-year-old Tsarevich Alexei, the son of Peter I. Despite its belonging to toys, the carriage was made according to all the rules and with all the subtleties of a complex technical solution. It has a device for turning - a “swan neck” - and a turning circle. The “amusing” carriage is in no way inferior to real carriages in its refined form and subtlety of decoration, which emphasizes the high social status of its little owner.

BERLINE type carriage

The elegant four-seater Berlina was used for important ceremonial trips of Catherine II. It was made by the famous St. Petersburg master of German origin Johann Conrad Buckendahl in 1769 and equipped with the latest structural and technical details of that time - vertical and horizontal leaf springs. Carved gilded decor adorns the cornice, slopes and platbands. The windows and the upper half of the doors are covered with mirror glass. On the front and rear of the mill and on the wheels, gilded carvings almost completely hide the structural details. It is no coincidence that this particular carriage served for the ceremonial trips of the Empress and the court.

Kolymaga

Kolymaga is a type of carriage widespread in Russia and Western Europe since the 16th century, with an almost quadrangular body on a high axle. This four-seater rattletrap was made by craftsmen in the 1640s, which is reflected in both the form and decoration. National originality was especially clearly reflected in the decor of the rattletrap. The body of a strict silhouette is covered with crimson velvet and decorated with a pattern of squares filled the entire surface, lined with gilded copper studs with convex caps. In the center of each square, an ornament in the shape of an eight-pointed star made of silver galloon, characteristic only of Russian crews of that time. The combination of crimson velvet with silver and gold creates a surprisingly harmonious and festive appearance of the carriage, which is complemented by mica windows decorated with openwork overlays in the form of stars and double-headed eagles.

The interior decoration is not inferior in its luxury to the exterior - the upholstery of the walls and seats is made of expensive Turkish gold velvet, which was loved in Rus' for its extraordinary splendor of the pattern. The first owner of the crew was the Bryansk headman, a citizen of the Russian state, Francis Lesnovolsky. In all likelihood, he received it as a reward “by the personal decree of the Great Sovereign.” Another owner of the rattletrap was the boyar Nikita Ivanovich Romanov, who played a significant role at the court of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich.

Winter "amusing" cart

The Winter Fun Cart is a unique carriage created in Moscow in 1689-1692, the likes of which are not found in any museum in the world. The cart is a “room” with small windows and fairly wide doors on runners for ease of movement in the snow. The “amusing” cart served for games and fun for the young children of Tsar Ivan Alekseevich, brother and co-ruler of Peter I. The shape of the body retains the ancient traditional shape - a strict and clear silhouette and rectangular outlines. However, it is decorated very picturesquely in accordance with the Baroque style fashionable at that time. The leather upholstery was made by craftsmen from the Moscow Kremlin. An embossed gilded relief pattern of flowers and fruits covers the entire surface of the walls and doors. The elegant carriage was perfect for the winter fun of the royal children and at the same time corresponded to the high status of the owners, which was emphasized by the sophistication of expensive decoration and high craftsmanship.